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Christian terrorism, a form ofreligious terrorism, refers toterrorist acts which are committed by groups or individuals who professChristian motivations or goals.[1] Christian terrorists justify their violent tactics through their interpretation of theBible andChristianity, in accordance with their own objectives andworldview.[2][3][4]
Christian terrorism can be committed against members of other Christian denominations, adherents of otherreligions,secular governments, groups, individuals or society as a whole.[2] Christianity can also be cynically misused as a rhetorical device to achieve political or military goals by terrorists.[5]
Christian terrorist groups includeparamilitary organizations,cults, and loose groups of people that might come together in order to attempt to terrorize other groups. Some groups also encourageunaffiliated individuals to commit terrorist acts.[6] The paramilitary groups are typically tied to ethnic and political goals as well as religious goals[7][8] and many of these groups have religious beliefs which are at odds with the religious beliefs of conventional Christianity.[9]
The literal use of the phrase Christian terrorism is disputed.[10][11][12] It appears in the academic literature to describe a large range of actions and beliefs.[10][13]
Religion can be cited as the motivation for terrorism in conflicts that have a variety of ethnic, economic and political causes, such as the one inBosnia.[14] In cases such as theLord's Resistance Army or theTaiping Rebellion the beliefs of the founders differ significantly from what is recognizably Christian.[5][15] In such cases the term Christian terrorism is problematic despite the claim that they are motivated by their religious beliefs.[citation needed]
The intimidation of minority communities along with sporadic acts of violence do not typically get referred to as terrorism.[16][17] However, in 2015 a majority of Americans from the Democratic and Republicanpolitical parties thought that "attacks on abortion providers [should] be considered domestic terrorism".[18]
Christianity came to prominence in theRoman Empire during and directly after the rule ofConstantine the Great (324–337 AD).[19] By this time, it had spread throughoutwestern Asia as a minority belief, and it had become thestate religion ofArmenia.[20][21] Inearly Christianity, there were many rival sects, which were collectively persecuted by some rulers.[22] There is, however, generally no record of these early Christian groups attempting to use acts of terrorism or indiscriminate acts of violence asreligious weapons,[22] though theDonatists fought a guerilla war against the mainstream church and the state, blinding Catholic priests to make their point.[23]
Gaining state backing by a particular Christian sect or creed led to an increase inreligious violence. This violence took the form ofpersecution of adherents of rival Christian beliefs andpersecution of adherents of other religions.[24] In Europe during theMiddle Ages, Christianantisemitism increased, and both theReformation andCounter-Reformation led to an increase in interdenominational violence.[25][26] As with modern examples, it is debated as to what extent these acts were religious as opposed to ethnic or political in nature.
Theearly modern period in Britain saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation and therecusancy that emerged in opposition to it.[27] TheGunpowder Plot of 1605 was a failed attempt by a group ofEnglish Catholics to assassinate theProtestantKing James I, and to blow up thePalace of Westminster, the English seat of government. Although the modern concept ofreligious terrorism, or indeed terrorism at all, had not yet come into use in the seventeenth century,David C. Rapoport and Lindsay Clutterbuck point out that the Plot, with its use of explosives, was an early precursor of nineteenth centuryanarchist terrorism.[28] Sue Mahan and Pamala L. Griset classify the plot as an act of religious terrorism, writing that "Fawkes and his colleagues justified their actions in terms of religion."[29]Peter Steinfels also characterizes this plot as a notable case of religious terrorism.[30]
Eastern Orthodox Christian-influenced movements inRomania, such as theIron Guard andLăncieri, which have been characterized byYad Vashem andStanley G. Payne asantisemitic andfascist, respectively, were involved in theBucharest pogrom and committed numerous politically motivated murders during the 1930s.[31][32][33][34][35][original research?]
In the late 1860s during theReconstruction era, former Confederate soldiers founded the originalKu Klux Klan (KKK) organization in the Southern United States. Religion did not play a role in the first Klan and it disappeared in the 1870s. However in 1915 a new Protestant-led[36] iteration, the second Klan, was formed during a period whenracism,xenophobia,nativism, andanti-Catholicism were all widespread. This second Klan vastly expanded its geographical reach and its list of targets over those of the first Klan.
Vehementlyanti-Catholic, the 1915 Klan espoused an explicitly Protestant terrorist ideology, partially basing its beliefs on a "religious foundation" inProtestantism and targeting Jews and Catholics,[37] as well as people who engaged in "immoral" practices such asadulterers,bad debtors,gamblers, andalcohol abusers. From an early time onward, the goals of the second KKK included an intent to reestablish Protestant values in America by any means possible in opposition to the growing threat from Jews and Catholics.[38] Although members swore to upholdChristian morality, virtually everyChristian denomination officially denounced the KKK.[39]
From 1915 onward,"second era" Klansmen initiatedcross burnings (adapted from scenes in the 1915 filmThe Birth of a Nation[40]), to inspire the Klansmen in a memorable new ritual modeled on medieval Scottish clan symbolism. Cross burning had never been a religious practice. The ritual of lighting crosses included singing "Onward Christian Soldiers."[40]Modern Klan organizations remain associated with acts ofdomestic terrorism in the United States.[41]
Mark Juergensmeyer, a former president of theAmerican Academy of Religion, has argued that there has been a global rise inreligious nationalism after theCold War due to thepost-colonial collapse of confidence in Western models ofnationalism and the rise ofglobalization.[42][43] Juergensmeyer categorizes contemporary Christian terrorists as being a part of "religious activists fromAlgeria toIdaho, who have come to hate secular governments with an almost transcendent passion and dream of revolutionary changes that will establish a godly social order in the rubble of what the citizens of most secular societies regard as modern, egalitarian democracies".[44]
According to terrorism expert David C. Rapoport, a "religious wave", or a cycle, of terrorism, dates from approximately 1979 to the present. According to Rapoport, this wave most prominently featuresIslamic terrorism, but it also includes terrorism by Christians and other religious groups that may have been influenced by Islamic terrorism.[45]
Numerous individuals and groups have cited their Christianity or Christian beliefs as the motivation for their terrorist acts.[4][46] This can mean that they see Christianity as their identity and the main reason for their existence, partially in contrast to the identities and existence of other groups which they consider threatening and non-Christian. Terrorists can also cite their interpretation of theBible or Christian beliefs as their motivation.[46] All types of terrorism have a complex interrelationship withpsychology andmental health; however, only a minority of terrorists have diagnosable medical illnesses.[47] Christianity can also be claimed as a motive to inspire followers or curry political favor or protection. All these motivations are not independent and often complexly interwoven.[4][48]
Religion is often closely tied to ethnic identity, economic standing and self image.[49] Should a group of Christians feel threatened, religion is a verifiable, culturally important label to use in creating a "them-and-us" mentality. This is particularly the case where both groups share membership in a broadly similar cultural group, for example thebreakup of Yugoslavia and theLord's Resistance Army inUganda.[50][14] In situations where the opposing ethnicities are more diverse, different skin colors and/or cultural practices are sometimes used as identifiers of the other.[51][52] In these cases terrorists may call themselves Christians, but they may not be motivated by any particular interpretation of Christian beliefs. In such cases Christianity is a label which reflects cultural, rather than directly ideological, influences.
This cultural Christian identity is often reinforced in the mind of the terrorist by media and governmental sources that vilify the other group or amplify its threat. This politicizing of ethno-religious tensions is a key contributor to theviolence in the Central African Republic.[53] The targets of this kind of terrorist motivation include other religions or denominations, but they can also include those who the perpetrator believes are threatening to him or her in any way, such asLGBT people or members of any group which does not conform to the perpetrator's view of who they are.[citation needed] For example, Slovenian Catholic terrorist group theBlack Hand assassinated hundreds of suspected communists, justifying it as "defense of the faith".[54]
When the opposing group is also Christian but belongs to a different denomination, it is often denounced as non-Christian or anti-Christian. For example, theleader of theOrange Volunteers, who described themselves asProtestant fundamentalists, defended their attacks onCatholic churches on the basis that they were "bastions of theAntichrist".[55][56]
Perpetrators have frequently cited Christianity as both a justification and a motivation for their actions.[46] Typically, as withattacks on abortion clinics as well as with attacks onLGBT people, the perpetrators usedoctrine[57][58] from an established Church as a justification for unsanctioned acts of violence.[59] However, they may also have a wholly individual theology that deviates from established Christian dogma.[60]
On 12 December 2022, a fundamentalist Christian terror attackthat resulted in the deaths of six people occurred inWieambilla,Queensland, Australia.[61]Premillennialism was cited by police as the terrorists' motivation.[62][63]
There are a wide variety of mental health conditions and illness, and it is quite rare for them to lead to violence.[64][65] Objectively determining the mental health of a terrorist is often complicated by a number of factors.[66][67] There is minimal statistically robust information specifically on terrorists who claim Christian motivation. However, Gill says that about 30% of right wing, 52% of single issue, and 8% of those in a terrorist group have a mental illness.[47] Another study found that about 53% of individual terrorists could have been characterized as socially isolated before their attacks.[47] People in some terrorist groups are less likely to have a mental illness than the general population, due to the selection criteria of such groups.[66] Mental illness does not seem to unduly prevent terrorists from performing successful complex attacks.[68]
Terrorists who claim to have a Christian motivation can act alone or in groups. It is often difficult to determine if the perpetrator acted completely alone or was inspired by a religious or political group. The same problem exists with Islamic terrorism or any allegedly religiously or politically motivated act of terror.[4][69][70]
On 16 July 2001,Peter James Knight walked into the East Melbourne Fertility Clinic, a private abortion provider, carrying a rifle and other weapons[71] including 16 litres ofkerosene, three lighters, torches, 30 gags, and a handwritten note that read "We regret to advise that as a result of a fatal accident involving some members of staff, we have been forced to cancel all appointments today". Knight later stated that he intended to massacre everyone in the clinic, and attack all Melbourne abortion clinics. He developed homemade mouth gags and door jambs to restrain patients and staff inside a clinic while he doused them with the kerosene.[72] He shot 44-year-oldStephen Gordon Rogers, a security guard, in the chest, killing him. Staff and clients overpowered him soon after.[73]
According to psychiatrist Don Sendipathy, Knight interpreted theBible in his own unique way and he also believed in his own brand ofChristianity. He believed that he needed to wage ananti-abortion crusade.[73]
Eric Robert Rudolph (the perpetrator of theCentennial Olympic Park bombing in 1996) carried out bombing attacks on two abortion clinics and he also bombed alesbian nightclub.Michael Barkun, a professor atSyracuse University, believes that Rudolph likely fits the definition of a Christian terrorist; however, James A. Aho, a professor atIdaho State University, is reluctant to use the phrase "Christian terrorist", so he calls Rudolph "a religiously inspired terrorist".[74]
Dr.George Tiller, one of the few doctors in the United States who performed abortions late in pregnancies, was a frequent target of anti-abortion violence and in 2009, he was killed by Scott Roeder as he stood in the foyer of his church. At trial, Roeder admitted to killing Tiller and he said that he did it in order to protect the lives of unborn babies. He was convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to life in prison. At his sentencing, he told the court that God "will avenge every drop of innocent blood," and he also stated that God’s judgment against the United States would "sweep over this land like a prairie wind."[75]
Tiller was shot once before, in 1993, byShelley Shannon, an anti-abortion activist who compared abortion providers toHitler and said that she believed that "justifiable force" was necessary to stop abortions. Shannon was sentenced to 10 years in prison for the shooting of Tiller and she later confessed to vandalizing and burning a string of abortion clinics inCalifornia,Nevada andOregon.[76][77]
James Kopp was convicted of the murder of Dr.Barnett Slepian, an obstetrician who provided abortion services in theBuffalo area, and he has also been named as a suspect in the shooting of several abortion providers in Canada. Kopp hid in the woods behind Slepian's home in October 1998 and shot him through the window with a high-powered rifle, killing him as he stood in his kitchen with his family. He was convicted on a state charge of second-degree murder in 2003 and sentenced to serve 25 years in prison. In 2007, he was convicted on a separate federal charge and sentenced to life in prison. The Canadian authorities also consider Kopp a suspect in several nonlethal attacks on Canadian abortion service providers because they believe that he shot through the windows of their homes.[citation needed]
According to theSouthern Poverty Law Center; "Anti-abortion violence is also deeply connected to antisemitism." Five abortion providers were killed in sniper attacks in the 1990s, out of whom four were Jewish, as was Slepian. Eric Rudolph was also known as aHolocaust denier.[78]
The November 2015Colorado Springs Planned Parenthood shooting, in which three people were killed and nine people were injured, was described as "a form of terrorism" by Colorado GovernorJohn Hickenlooper.[79] The gunman, Robert Lewis Dear, was described as a "delusional" man[80] because on aninternet forum, he had written that "sinners" would "burn in hell" during theend times.[81] He had praised theArmy of God, stating that attacks on abortion clinics are "God's work".[82] Dear's ex-wife said that he had put glue on a lock of a Planned Parenthood clinic, and in court documents which pertained to their divorce, she said "He claims to be a Christian and is extremely evangelistic, but does not follow the Bible in his actions. He says that as long as he believes he will be saved, he can do whatever he pleases. He is obsessed with the world coming to an end."[82]
TheArmy of God is an American Christian terrorist organization; its members have perpetrated acts of anti-abortion violence.[83] Similarly, the members of theAryan Nations, classified byFederal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) as a "terrorist threat",[84] subscribe to the anti-abortion cause as a part of "the Holy War for the pure Aryan race."[85] Aryan Nations is tied to cases of anti-abortion violence; for example Eric Rudolph was in contact with the group.[86]
Richard Wayne Snell, a member ofThe Covenant, the Sword, and the Arm of the Lord, shot a man presumed to be Jewish and a black police officer in 1983 and 1984 respectively. He was executed in 1995.[90]
Gary Matson and Winfield Mowder were agay couple fromRedding, California, who were murdered by Benjamin Matthew Williams and James Tyler Williams in 1999. Neighbors said that the family of the Williams Brothers was known for itsfundamentalist Christian beliefs, and they also said that recordings of sermons and religious music were frequently heard from their house.[91] The two perpetrators of the murder are believed to have had ties to theChristian Identity movement. They were also suspected of playing a role in 18arson attacks on threesynagogues.[92]
In 1996, three men who claimed to bePhineas priests—Charles Barbee, Robert Berry and Jay Merelle—were charged with two bank robberies and bombings at the banks, the bombing of aSpokane newspaper, and the bombing of aPlanned Parenthood clinic inWashington state. The men wereantisemitic Christian Identity theorists who believed that God wanted them to carry out violent attacks and they also believed that such attacks would hasten the ascendancy of theAryan race.[93]
In 2015, Robert Doggart, a 63-year-old mechanical engineer, was indicted for solicitation to commit a civil rights violation by intending to damage or destroy religious property after he stated that he intended to amass weapons and attackIslamberg, an Islamic hamlet and religious community inDelaware County, New York.[94] Doggart, a member of several private militia groups, spoke to an FBI source during a phone call and stated that he had anM4 carbine with "500 rounds of ammunition" that he intended to take to the Delaware County enclave, along with a handgun,Molotov cocktails and amachete. The FBI source recorded him saying "if it gets down to the machete, we will cut them to shreds".[95] Doggart had previously travelled to a site inDover, Tennessee, which had been described as a "jihadist training camp", in chain emails and found that the claims were wrong. In April, Doggart accepted aplea bargain and stated that he had "willfully and knowingly sent a message in interstate commerce containing a true threat" to injure someone. The plea bargain was struck down by a judge because it did not contain enough facts to constitute a true threat.[96][97] Doggart describes himself as a Christian minister in the "Christian National (Congregational) Church" (apparently, theNational Association of Congregational Christian Churches).[98] None of the charges against him are terrorism related, however, some groups have described his actions as such.[99][100][101]
According toUniversity of Auckland Professor Douglas Pratt, who is an international expert onreligious terrorism, theChristchurch mosque shootings by Australian Brenton Harrison Tarrant, which killed 51 people and injured 50 more people (primarily Muslims) at theAl Noor Mosque and theLinwood Islamic Centre inChristchurch, New Zealand, were a form of "Christian terrorism" andwhite supremacy. Tarrant's manifestoThe Great Replacement, which is named afterthe French far-right conspiracy theory bearing the same name, quotedPope Urban II (who ordered theFirst Crusade) and demanded the retaking ofJerusalem, stated Tarrant's wish thatIstanbul (aka Constantinople) should be taken from Turkey so it will be back in Christian hands and he finally stated that Tarrant's main motive for the attacks wasrevenge against Islam. The shooter's rifles were covered withwhite supremacist symbols and the names of various historical non-Muslim figures who waged battles against Muslims.[102][103][104][105]
The perpetrator of thePittsburgh Tree of Life synagogue shooting, Robert Bowers, stated that "Jews are the children of Satan" on the bio of hisGab account.[89] ThePoway synagogue shooting suspectJohn T. Earnest cited Bible quotes to justify his attack.[106]
the lost history of christianity.
Like many terrorists throughout history, Fawkes and his colleagues justified their actions in terms of religion. Like other instances of 'holy terror', the Gunpowder Plot was deeply rooted in events that had occurred long before.
citing N. Cainic,Ortodoxie şi etnocraţie, pp. 162–4
Kenneth T. Jackson, in hisThe Ku Klux Klan in the City 1915–1930, reminds us that "virtually every" Protestant denomination denounced the KKK, and the anti-Klan movement was led by Protestants. But most KKK members were not "innately depraved or anxious enough to subvert American institutions"; rather, they believed that their membership was in keeping with "one hundred percent Americanism" and Protestant morality.
'Based on what we know of Rudolph so far, and admittedly it's fragmentary, there seems to be a fairly high likelihood that he can legitimately be called a Christian terrorist,' said Michael Barkun, a professor of political science at Syracuse University who has been a consultant to the FBI on Christian extremist groups.
