Christian countercult activism mainly stems fromevangelicalism orfundamentalism. The countercult movement asserts that particular Christian sects are erroneous because their beliefs are not in accordance with the teachings of theBible as understood by the countercult group. It also states that a religious sect can be considered a cult if its beliefs involve a denial of any of what the countercult group consideres essential Christian teachings (such assalvation, theTrinity,Jesus himself as a person, theministry andmiracles of Jesus,his crucifixion,his resurrection, theSecond Coming and theRapture).[3][4][5]
Countercult literature usually expresses specific doctrinal or theological concerns, often with amissionary orapologetic purpose.[7] It presents a rebuttal by emphasizing the teachings of the Bible as understood by the countercult group against the beliefs of what they consider non-fundamental Christian sects. Christian countercult activist writers also emphasize the need for Christians toevangelize to followers of cults.[8][9][10] Some Christians also share concerns similar to those of the secularanti-cult movement.[11][12]
The movement publishes its views through a variety of media, including books, magazines, and newsletters, radio broadcasting, audio and videocassette production, direct-mail appeals, proactive evangelistic encounters, professional and avocational websites, as well as lecture series, training workshops and counter-cult conferences.[1]
Christians have applied theological criteria to assess the teachings of perceived non‑orthodox movements throughout church history.[13][14][15] TheApostles themselves were involved in challenging the doctrines and claims of various teachers. TheApostle Paul’sGalatians confronts teachers urging Gentile believers to adopt circumcision and/or other aspects of the Mosaic Law, a dispute also reflected in the Jerusalem Council narrative (cf.Acts 15;Galatians 1:6–10).[16] Many interpreters read theFirst Epistle of John as responding to early docetic or proto‑Gnostic teachings that denied Jesus’ coming in the flesh, reflected in the letter’s tests of christological confession and appeals to eyewitness testimony (1 John 1:1;1 John 2:22;1 John 4:2).[17][18]”
Quite a few of the pioneering apologists wereBaptist pastors, like I. M. Haldeman, orPlymouth Brethren, such asWilliam C. Irvine andSydney Watson.[28] Watson wrote a series ofdidactic novels likeEscaped from the Snare: Christian Science,[29]Bewitched by Spiritualism,[30] andThe Gilded Lie (Millennial Dawnism),[31] as warnings of the dangers posed by what he considered cultic groups. Watson's use of fiction to counter these perceived cults has been repeated by later novelists likeFrank E. Peretti.[32][33]
Early twentieth-century Protestant apologists generally applied the wordsheresy andsects to groups like theChristadelphians, Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses, Spiritualists, andTheosophists. This was reflected in several chapters contributed to the multi-volume work released in 1915The Fundamentals, where apologists criticized the teachings ofCharles Taze Russell,Mary Baker Eddy, the Mormons and Spiritualists.[34][35][36][37]
Since the 1940s, the approach of Protestant Christians was to apply the meaning ofcult such that it included those religious groups who use other scriptures beside theBible or have teachings and practices deviating from Protestant Christian teachings and practices. Some examples of sources (with published dates where known) that documented this approach are:
Baalen, Jan Karel van (1962).The chaos of cults; a study of present-day isms (4th rev. and enl. ed.). Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans Pub. Co.ISBN978-0802832788.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Heresies Exposed, by W. C. Irvine, pub. 1917, 1921, 1985 (Loizeaux Brothers).ISBN978-0872134010
Confusion of Tongues, by C. W. Ferguson, pub. 1928 (Doran & Co).OCLC903178756
Isms New and Old, by Julius Bodensieck.OCLC6565177
One of the first prominent countercult apologists wasJan Karel van Baalen (1890–1968), an ordained minister in theChristian Reformed Church in North America. His bookThe Chaos of Cults, which was first published in 1938, became a classic among Protestant as it was repeatedly revised and updated until 1962.[38]
Historically, one of the most important protagonists of the movement wasWalter Martin (1928–1989), whose numerous books include the 1955The Rise of the Cults: An Introductory Guide to the Non-Christian Cults and the 1965The Kingdom of the Cults: An Analysis of Major Cult Systems in the Present Christian Era, which continues to be influential. He became well known in conservative Christian circles through a radio program, "The Bible Answer Man", currently hosted byHank Hanegraaff.
InThe Rise of the Cults, Martin gave the following definition of a cult:
By cultism we mean the adherence to doctrines which are pointedly contradictory to orthodox Christianity and which yet claim the distinction of either tracing their origin to orthodox sources or of being in essential harmony with those sources. Cultism, in short, is any major deviation from orthodox Christianity relative to the cardinal doctrines of the Christian faith.[39]
As Martin's definition suggests, the countercult ministries concentrate on non-traditional groups that claim to be Christian, so chief targets have been, Jehovah's Witnesses, Armstrongism, Christian Science, and the Unification Church, but also smaller groups like the Swedenborgian Church.[40] He defines Christian cults as groups that follow the personal interpretation of an individual, rather than the understanding of theBible accepted byNicene Christianity, providing the examples of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Christian Science, Jehovah's Witnesses, and theUnity Church.[41] Martin examines a large number of new religious movements; included are major groups such as Christian Science, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses, Armstrongism,Theosophy, theBaháʼí Faith,Unitarian Universalism, Scientology, as well as minor groups including variousNew Age and groups based onEastern religions. The beliefs of other world religions such asIslam andBuddhism are also discussed. He covers each group's history and teachings, and contrasts them with those of mainstream Christianity.[41][42]
Various other Christian leaders—among themJohn Ankerberg andNorman Geisler—have emphasized themes similar to Martin's.[43][44] Perhaps more importantly, numerous other well-known Christian leaders and pastors have accepted Martin's definition of a cult as well as his understanding of the groups to which he gave that label.Dave Breese summed up this kind of definition in these words:
A cult is a religious perversion. It is a belief and practice in the world of religion which calls for devotion to a religious view or leader centered in false doctrine. It is an organized heresy. A cult may take many forms but it is basically a religious movement which distorts or warps orthodox faith to the point where truth becomes perverted into a lie. A cult is impossible to define except against the absolute standard of the teaching of Holy Scripture.[45]
Kenne "Ken" Silva is said by other discernment bloggers to have pioneered online discernment ministry.[46] Ken was aBaptist pastor who ran the discernment blog "Apprising". Silva wrote many blog articles about theEmerging Church, theWord of Faith Movement, the Jehovah's Witnesses, theGay Christian Movement, and many other groups. He started his blog in 2005 and wrote there until his death in 2014.[47]
Silva's work paved the way for other internet discernment ministries such as 'Pirate Christian Radio', a group of blogs and podcasts founded byLutheran pastor Chris Rosebrough in 2008,[48] and 'Pulpit & Pen', a discernment blog founded by Baptist pastor andpolemicist J. D. Hall.[49]
Since the 1980s, the termnew religions ornew religious movements has slowly entered into Evangelical usage alongside the wordcult. Some book titles use both terms.[50][51][52]
The acceptance of these alternatives to the wordcult in evangelicalism reflects, in part, the wider usage of such language in thesociology of religion.[53]
The termcountercultapologetics first appeared in ProtestantEvangelical literature as a self-designation in the late 1970s and early 1980s in articles byRonald Enroth and David Fetcho, and byWalter Martin inMartin Speaks Out on the Cults.[54] A mid-1980s debate about apologetic methodology between Ronald Enroth andJ. Gordon Melton, led the latter to place more emphasis in his publications on differentiating the Christian countercult from the secularanti-cult.[55] Eric Pement urged Melton to adopt the label "Christian countercult",[56] and since the early 1990s the terms has entered into popular usage and is recognized bysociologists such asDouglas Cowan.[57]
The only existingumbrella organization within the countercult movement in the United States is the Evangelical Ministries to New Religions (EMNR), founded in 1982 by Martin, Enroth, Gordon Lewis, and James Bjornstad.[1]
While the greatest number of countercult ministries are found in the United States, ministries exist inAustralia,Brazil,Canada,Denmark[58]Ethiopia,Germany,Hungary,Italy,Mexico,New Zealand,Philippines,Romania,Russia,Sweden, andUkraine.[59][60][61] A comparison between the methods employed in the United States and other nations discloses some similarities in emphasis, but also other nuances in emphasis. The similarities are that globally these ministries share a common concern about theevangelization of people in perceived cults and new religions. There is also often a common thread of comparing orthodox doctrines and biblical passages with the teachings of the groups under examination. In some of the European and southern hemisphere contexts, however, confrontational methods of engagement are not always relied on, and dialogical approaches are sometimes advocated.[62][63][64]
A group of organizations that originated within the context of established religion is working in more general fields of "cult awareness," especially in Europe. Their leaders are theologians, and they are often social ministries affiliated to big churches.
Berlin-basedPfarramt für Sekten- und Weltanschauungsfragen[65] (Parish Office for Sects and World Views) headed byLutheran pastor Thomas Gandow[66]
SwissEvangelische Informationsstelle Kirchen-Sekten-Religionen (Protestant Reformed Zwinglian Information Service on Churches, Sects and Religions) headed byZwinglian parson Georg Schmid[67]
The phenomena ofcults has also entered into thediscourses of Christian missions and theology of religions. An initial step in this direction occurred in 1980 when theLausanne Committee for World Evangelization convened a mini-consultation inThailand. From that consultation a position paper was produced.[73] The issue was revisited at the Lausanne Forum in 2004 with another paper.[74] The latter paper adopts a different methodology to that advocated in 1980.
In the 1990s, discussions in academic missions and theological journals indicate that another trajectory is emerging that reflects the influence of contextual missions theory. Advocates of this approach maintain that apologetics as a tool needs to be retained, but do not favor a confrontational style of engagement.[75]
Countercult apologetics has several variations and methods employed in analyzing and responding to cults. The different nuances in countercult apologetics have been discussed byJohn A. Saliba[76] and Philip Johnson.[77]
The dominant method is the emphasis on detecting unorthodox or heretical doctrines and contrasting those with orthodox interpretations of theBible and early creedal documents. Some apologists, such asFrancis J. Beckwith, have emphasized a philosophical approach, pointing outlogical,epistemological andmetaphysical problems within the teachings of a particular group.[78] Another approach involves former members of cultic groups recounting their spiritual autobiographies, which highlight experiences of disenchantment with the group, unanswered questions and doubts about commitment to the group, culminating in the person's conversion to Evangelical Christianity.[79]
Apologists likeDave Hunt inPeace, Prosperity and the Coming Holocaust andHal Lindsey inThe Terminal Generation have tended to interpret the phenomena of cults as part of the burgeoning evidence of signs thatChrist's Second Advent is close at hand.[80] Both Hunt andConstance Cumbey have applied aconspiracy model to interpreting the emergence ofNew Age spirituality and linking that to speculations about fulfilled prophecies heralding Christ's reappearance.[81]
This articleneeds attention from an expert in Christianity. The specific problem is:to move the section and article away from WP:OR, by addessing the issue of the complete lack of specific sourcing identifying the people and organisations presented with the titular movement.WikiProject Christianity may be able to help recruit an expert.(September 2024)
^abcdCowan, D.E. 2003.Bearing False Witness?: An Introduction to the Christian Countercult. Praeger.
^Robert M. Bowman,Orthodoxy and Heresy: A Biblical Guide to Doctrinal Discernment, Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1992, pp. 10, 106-107, & 123-124.
^Walter R. Martin,The Rise of the Cults, rev.ed. Santa Ana: Vision House, 1978, pp. 11–2.
^Richard Abanes,Defending the Faith: A Beginner's Guide to Cults and New Religions, Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1997, p. 33.
^H. Wayne House & Gordon Carle,Doctrine Twisting: How Core Biblical Truths are Distorted, Downers Grove: IVP, 2003.
^Joel A. MacCollam, “Carnival of Souls: Religious Cults and Young People,” New York: Seabury Press, 1979.
^Garry W. Trompf, "Missiology, Methodology and the Study of New Religious Movements,"Religious Traditions 10, 1987, pp. 95–106.
^Walter R. Martin,The Kingdom of the Cults, rev.ed. Ravi Zacharias ed. Bloomington: Bethany House, 2003, pp. 479–93.
^Ronald Enroth ed.Evangelising the Cults, Milton Keynes: Word, 1990.
^Norman L Geisler & Ron Rhodes,When Cultists Ask: A Popular Handbook on Cultic Misinterpretations, Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1997.
^Paul R. Martin,Cult Proofing Your Kids, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993.
^Joel A. MacCollam,Carnival of Souls: Religious Cults and Young People, New York: Seabury Press, 1979.
^Saliba, Understanding New Religious Movements, pp. 45–74.
^Harold O. J. Brown, Heresies: The Image of Christ in the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy from the Apostles to the Present, Garden City: Doubleday, 1984.
^J. W. C. Wand, The Four Great Heresies: Nestorian, Eutychian, Apollinarian, Arian, London: A. R. Mowbray, 1955.
^A. T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament, vol. 4: Galatians–Ephesians (on Galatians 1:6–10), Nashville: Broadman, 1931.
^Stephen S. Smalley, 1, 2, 3 John (Word Biblical Commentary 51), Waco: Word Books, 1984, pp. 10–16.
^Raymond E. Brown, The Epistles of John (Anchor Bible 30), Garden City: Doubleday, 1982, pp. 73–90.
^Eric J. Sharpe,Comparative Religion: A History, London: Duckworth, 1975, p. 9
^James R. Lewis, "Works of Darkness: Occult Fascination in the Novels of Frank Peretti" inMagical Religion and Modern Witchcraft, James R. Lewis ed. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996, pp. 339–50.
^William G. Moorehead, 'Millennial Dawn A Counterfeit of Christianity', inThe Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth, Volume 7. Chicago: Testimony Publishing.
^Maurice E. Wilson, 'Eddyism, Commonly Called "Christian Science", inThe Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth, Volume 9. Chicago: Testimony Publishing.
^R. G. McNiece, 'Mormonism: Its Origin, Characteristics, and Doctrines', inThe Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth, Volume 8. Chicago: Testimony Publishing.
^Algernon J. Pollock, 'Modern Spiritualism Briefly Tested By Scripture', inThe Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth, Volume 10. Chicago: Testimony Publishing.
^J.K.van Baalen,The Chaos of Cults, 4th rev. ed. Grand Rapids: William Eerdmans Publishing, 1962.
^Walter R. Martin,The Rise of the Cults, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1955, pp. 11–2.
^Each of these movements are treated in separate chapters in Walter R. Martin,The Kingdom of the Cults, rev. ed. Ravi Zacharias ed. Bloomington: Bethany House, 2003.
^abMichael J. McManus, "Eulogy for the godfather of the anti-cult movement", obituary inThe Free Lance-Star, Fredericksburg, VA, 26 August 1989,p. 8.
^"unapologetically hostile to young and developing spiritual trends"Dackson, Wendy (Summer 2004). "New Religious Movements in the 21st Century: Legal, Political, and Social Challenges in Global Perspective".Journal of Church and State.46 (3): 663.doi:10.1093/jcs/46.3.663.
^John Ankerberg & John Weldon,Cult Watch, Eugene: Harvest House, 1991, pp. i–x.
^Richard Abanes,Cults, New Religious Movements, and Your Family, Wheaton: Crossway, 1998.
^Ronald Enroth ed.A Guide to New Religious Movements, Downers Grove: IVP, 2005.
^Ron Rhodes,The Challenge of the Cults and New Religions, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001.
^On sociological understandings see for example Eileen Barker,New Religious Movements: A Practical Introduction, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1989. George D. Chryssides,Exploring New Religions, London & New York: Cassell, 1999.Jacob Needleman & George Baker ed.Understanding the New Religions, New York: Seabury Press, 1981.Mikael Rothstein & Reender Kranenborg ed.New Religions in a Postmodern World, Aarhus, Denmark: Aargus University Press, 2003.
^Ronald M. Enroth, "Cult/Counter-cult",Eternity, November 1977, pp.18–22, 32–5. David Fetcho, "Disclosing the Unknown God: Evangelism to the New Religions",Update: A Quarterly Journal on New Religious Movements Volume 6, number 4 December 1982 p.8. Walter R. Martin,Martin Speaks Out on the Cults, rev. ed. Ventura: Vision House, 1983, pp.124–5.
^Ronald M. Enroth and J. Gordon Melton,Why Cults Succeed Where The Church Fails, Elgin: Brethren, 1985, pp. 25–30.
^Eric Pement, 'Comments on the Directory' in Keith Edward Tolbert and Eric Pement,The 1993 Directory of Cult Research Organizations, Trenton: American Religions Center, 1993, p. x.
^Douglas E. Cowan,Bearing False Witness? An Introduction to the Christian Countercult, Westport: Praeger, 2003.
^Douglas E. Cowan, The Christian Countercult Movement, Cambridge University Press, 2023, chs. 1–3, survey of organizations and international scope.
^Massimo Introvigne, “The Christian Counter-Cult in Comparative Perspective,” Nova Religio 1(2), 1998, overview of countercult organizations beyond the U.S.
^J. Gordon Melton, Encyclopedia of American Religions, 8th ed., Gale, 2009, entries referencing international countercult groups and networks.
^Douglas E. Cowan, The Christian Countercult Movement, Cambridge University Press, 2023, ch. 4–5, discussing methodological similarities and regional variations, including dialogical approaches.
^Eileen Barker, New Religious Movements: A Practical Introduction, HMSO, 1989, pp. 138–156, noting European engagement strategies and dialogue-oriented approaches with NRMs.
^John A. Saliba, Understanding New Religious Movements, AltaMira, 1995, pp. 205–236, on Christian responses to NRMs emphasizing dialogue and comparative doctrine.
^Irving Hexham, Stephen Rost & John W. Morehead ed.Encountering New Religious Movements: A Holistic Evangelical Approach, Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2004.Gordon R. Lewis, "Our Mission Responsibility to New Religious Movements"International Journal of Frontier Missions Volume 15, number 3 July–September 1998, p. 116.
^John A. Saliba.Understanding New Religious Movements. pp. 212–223.
^Philip Johnson (Fall 2002). "Apologetics, Mission and New Religious Movements: A Holistic Approach".Sacred Tribes Journal.1 (1):5–220.
^Francis J. Beckwith & Stephen E. Parrish,See the gods fall, Joplin: College Press, 1997. Francis J. Beckwith, Carl Mosser & Paul Owen ed.The New Mormon Challenge, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002.
^James R. Adair & Ted Miller ed.Escape from Darkness, Wheaton: Victor, 1982. Chris Elkins,Heavenly Deception, Wheaton: Tyndale House, 1980. Joe Hewitt,I Was Raised a Jehovah's Witness, Denver: Accent Books, 1979. Latayne C. Scott,Ex-Mormons: Why We Left, Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1990.
^Dave Hunt,Peace, Prosperity and the Coming Holocaust: The New Age Movement in Prophecy, Eugene: Harvest House, 1983. Hal Lindsey,The Terminal Generation, Old Tappan: Fleming H. Revell, 1976.
^Constance E. Cumbey,The Hidden Dangers of the Rainbow, Shreveport: Huntington House, 1983. Evaluated in Elliot Miller,A Crash Course on the New Age Movement, Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1989, pp. 193–206. John A. Saliba,Christian Responses to the New Age Movement: A Critical Assessment, London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1999, pp.58–63.
^Sociologist and Christian author of books about cults and new religious movements.[according to whom?]
^Late Baptist minister who was the host of theBible Answer Man radio broadcast—now hosted byHank Hanegraaff—and the president of the Christian Research Institute, who often used his broadcast to promote arguments against Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and other movements.[according to whom?]
Melton, J. Gordon., "The counter-cult monitoring movement in historical perspective," inChallenging Religion: Essays in Honour of Eileen Barker, edited by James A. Beckford & James T. Richardson, (Routledge, London, 2003), pp. 102–113.
Saliba, John A.,Understanding New Religious Movements, 2nd edition (Alta Mira Press, Walnut Creek, Lanham, New York & Oxford, 2003).
