Chris McCandless | |
|---|---|
 McCandless next to the Fairbanks City Transit SystemBus 142 on theStampede Trail, found as an undevelopedphotographic film in his camera after his death | |
| Born | Christopher Johnson McCandless (1968-02-12)February 12, 1968 Inglewood, California, U.S. |
| Died | c. August 1992 (aged 24) Stampede Trail,Alaska, U.S. |
| Cause of death | Starvation |
| Body discovered | September 6, 1992 |
| Other names | Alexander Supertramp |
| Education | Wilbert Tucker Woodson High School |
| Alma mater | Emory University (BA) |
| Parents |
|
Christopher Johnson McCandless (/məˈkændlɪs/; February 12, 1968[1] –c. August 1992), also known by his pseudonym "Alexander Supertramp",[2] was an Americanadventurer who sought an increasinglynomadic lifestyle as he grew up. McCandless is the subject ofInto the Wild, a nonfiction book byJon Krakauer that was later made intoa full-length feature film.
After graduating fromEmory University inGeorgia in 1990, McCandless traveled across North America and eventuallyhitchhiked toAlaska in April 1992. There, he entered theAlaskan bush with minimal supplies, hoping tolive simply off the land. On the eastern bank of the Sushana River, McCandless found an abandoned bus,Fairbanks Bus 142, which he used as a makeshift shelter until his death. In September, his body, weighing only 67 pounds (30 kg), was found inside the bus by a hunter. McCandless's cause of death was officially ruled to bestarvation,[3][4] although the exact circumstances relating to his death remain the subject of some debate.[5][6][7][8]
In January 1993, Krakauer published an article about McCandless in that month's issue ofOutside magazine.[9] Inspired by the details of McCandless's story, Krakauer wrote the biographical bookInto the Wild, which was subsequently adapted into a2007 film directed bySean Penn, withEmile Hirsch portraying McCandless. That same year, McCandless became the subject ofRon Lamothe's documentaryThe Call of the Wild.
Christopher Johnson McCandless was born inInglewood,California, and spent his early childhood inEl Segundo,California. He was the elder child of Wilhelmina Marie "Billie" McCandless (née Johnson) and Walter "Walt" McCandless, and had a younger sister named Carine, born in July 1971. McCandless also had six half-siblings from Walt's first marriage, who lived with their mother in California and later inDenver,Colorado. In 1976, the family relocated toAnnandale,Virginia, where McCandless's father was hired as an antenna specialist for theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). McCandless's mother worked as a secretary forHughes Aircraft. The couple went on to establish a successful consultancy business out of their home, specializing in Walt's area of expertise.[10]
Carine McCandless alleged in her memoirThe Wild Truth that her parents inflictedverbal andphysical abuse upon each other and their children, often fueled by her father'salcoholism. She cited their abusive childhood, as well as his reading ofJack London'sThe Call of the Wild, as the motivating factors in her brother's desire to "disappear" into the wilderness.[11] In a statement released to the media shortly before the memoir was released, Walt and Billie McCandless denied their daughter's accusations, stating that her book is "fictionalized writing [that] has absolutely nothing to do with our beloved son, Chris, his journey or his character. This whole unfortunate event in Chris's life 22 years ago is about Chris and his dreams."[10]
In 1986, McCandless graduated fromW.T. Woodson High School inFairfax, Virginia.[12] He excelled academically, although a number of teachers and fellow students observed that he "marched to the beat of a different drummer." McCandless also served as captain of thecross-country team, where he would urge teammates to treat running as a spiritual exercise in which they were "running against the forces of darkness ... all the evil in the world, all the hatred."[13]
In the summer of 1986, McCandless travelled toSouthern California and reconnected with relatives and friends. While he was there, McCandless learned that his father had lived for a time in abigamous union with his second wife; he had also fathered a child with his first wife after the birth of his children by his second wife.Jon Krakauer speculated that this discovery had a profound impact on McCandless.[14]
McCandless graduated fromEmory University in May 1990 with abachelor's degree in the double majors ofhistory andanthropology.[13] McCandless was an academic high achiever.[15] After graduating, he donated his college savings of over $24,000 (approximately $58,000 in 2024) toOxfam and adopted avagabond lifestyle, working when necessary as a restaurant food preparer and farm-hand.[16] An avidoutdoorsman, McCandless completed several lengthy wilderness hiking trips and paddled a canoe down a portion of theColorado River before hitchhiking toAlaska in April 1992.[17]
McCandless had a particular interest in classic literature. According to Krakauer, some of his favorite writers wereJack London,Mark Twain,Leo Tolstoy andH. G. Wells.[18] He was also heavily influenced by 19th-century American writer and naturalistHenry David Thoreau, and was engrossed by his essayOn the Duty of Civil Disobedience. McCandless highlighted a section onchastity in Thoreau'sWalden, which has raised questions regarding his sexuality. There is no indication of McCandless having any romantic partners throughout his life, and he is believed to have remainedcelibate, although his sister Carine recalls how one night, as a teenager, McCandless drunkenly attempted to bring a girl up to his room, which awakened his mother Billie, who sent the girl home. While staying in Niland Slabs, a seventeen-year-old girl named Tracy pursued McCandless romantically; however, McCandless rejected her advances.[18] Wayne Westerburg recalls McCandless stating that he hoped to get married and have a family in his future.[19]
McCandless left Virginia in the summer of 1990, driving aDatsun west in an apparent cross-country trip to California. His car was in poor condition and suffered numerous breakdowns as he made his way out of the eastern United States. He also carried nocar insurance on the vehicle and was driving with expiredlicense plates. By the end of the summer, McCandless had reached theLake Mead National Recreation Area, where aflash flood disabled his car. Fearful of fines or possibly even arrest due to lack of a valid license, registration, and insurance, McCandless removed the car's license plates, took what he could carry, and kept moving on foot. His car was later found, repaired, and put into service as an undercover vehicle for the local police department.[20]
Traveling northwest, McCandless thenhitchhiked into theSierra Nevada mountains, where he broke into a closed cabin to steal food, supplies, and money. Throughout the winter of 1990 and in 1991, McCandless appears to have lived inhermit camps with other vagrants in the Sierra Nevada region. He was suspected ofburglarizing other cabins when food and money ran low, but only one case was ever positively confirmed by authorities after his death.[21]
In early 1991, McCandless left the Sierra Nevada and hitchhiked in a circular course south through California, intoArizona, and then north toSouth Dakota. Completely out of cash with no means to support himself, he obtained a job as agrain elevator operator inCarthage, South Dakota. He worked at this job for the remainder of 1991, until one day suddenly quitting and leaving his supervisor a postcard, which read:
Tramping is too easy with all this money. My days were more exciting when I was penniless and had to forage around for my next meal ... I've decided that I'm going to live this life for some time to come.
McCandless then headed to Colorado, where he used money from his job to buykayak supplies as well as ahandgun. He then navigated the Colorado River, without a permit, and was occasionally pursued by wildlife and park rangers who had heard of his exploits from other river travelers, several of whom had been concerned that McCandless had been seenwhite water rafting in dangerous areas of the river with no safety equipment. In all, sightings of McCandless were reported atLake Havasu,Bill Williams River, the Colorado River Reservoir,Cibola National Wildlife Refuge,Imperial National Wildlife Refuge, andYuma Proving Ground. The authorities attempted, but never succeeded, in locating McCandless, who was wanted due to his lack of proper river training as well as kayaking on the river without a valid boating license.[22]
McCandless eventually followed the Colorado River all the way to Mexico, where he crossed the international border through aspillway at theMorelos Dam. After encountering waterfalls, through which he could no longer navigate in a canoe, McCandless abandoned his river journey and spent a few days alone at the village of El Golfo de Santa Clara, in the state ofSonora. Finding Mexico intimidating, with no way to support himself, he attempted to re-enter the U.S. and was arrested for carrying a firearm at a border checkpoint. McCandless was briefly held in custody but released without charges after his gun was confiscated. Following this experience in Mexico, McCandless began hitchhiking north, eventually winding up back in South Dakota.[21]
In April 1992, McCandless hitchhiked from South Dakota toFairbanks, Alaska. After his death, witnesses stated they had seen McCandless in Alaska first atDot Lake, with several other sightings in Fairbanks. McCandless was stated to be traveling with a "big backpack" and would give a false name if asked his identity. He was described as very suspicious of people around him, unkempt, and smelling due to lack of hygiene. One witness described McCandless as "generally strange, weird, with a weird energy".[21]
McCandless was then last seen alive at the head of theStampede Trail on April 28 by a local electrician named Jim Gallien. Gallien, who had given McCandless a ride from Fairbanks to the start of the rugged track just outside the small town ofHealy, later said he had been seriously concerned about the safety of McCandless (who introduced himself as "Alex") after noticing his light pack, minimal equipment, meagerrations, and obvious lack of experience. Gallien said he had deep doubts about "Alex's" ability to survive the harsh and unforgivingAlaskan bush.
Gallien tried repeatedly to persuade McCandless to delay the trip, at one point offering to detour toAnchorage and buy him suitable equipment and supplies. However, McCandless ignored Gallien's persistent warnings and refused his offers of assistance (though he did accept a pair ofXtratufs, two sandwiches, and a packet of corn chips from Gallien). Gallien dropped McCandless off, believing he would head back towards the highway within a few days as hunger set in.[23]
After hiking along the snow-covered Stampede Trail, McCandless came upon anabandoned bus (about 28 miles (45 km) west of Healy at63°52′5.96″N149°46′8.39″W / 63.8683222°N 149.7689972°W /63.8683222; -149.7689972) alongside an overgrown section of the trail nearDenali National Park. McCandless, according to Krakauer, attempted to continue "heading west until [he] hit theBering Sea." However, he was deterred by the thick Alaskan bush and returned to the bus, where he set up camp and lived off the land. He had 4.5 kilograms (9.9 lb) of rice; aRemington Nylon 66semi-automatic rifle with 400 rounds of.22LRhollowpoint ammunition; a number of books, including one onlocal plant life; some personal effects and a few items of camping equipment. Self-portrait photographs and journal entries indicate he foraged for edible plants and hunted game includingporcupines,squirrels, and birds such asptarmigans andCanada geese. On June 9, 1992, McCandless illegally stalked and shot amoose. However, the meat spoiled within days after he failed in his efforts to preserve it. McCandless would experience profound regret as a result of this experience, expressing in a journal entry “I now wish I had never shot the moose. One of the greatest tragedies of my life.”
It had been speculated that McCandless was responsible forvandalizing several cabins in the area that were stocked with food, survival equipment, and emergency supplies. In response, Denali National Park Chief Ranger Ken Kehrer has categorically stated that McCandless was not considered a viable suspect by theNational Park Service.[24]
McCandless's journal documents 113 days in the area. In July, after living in the bus for a little over two months, he decided to head back to civilization, but the trail was blocked by the impassableTeklanika River swollen with late-summer runoff from theCantwell Glacier; the watercourse by that stage was considerably higher and swifter than when he had crossed in April.[a] McCandless did not have a detailedtopographical map of the region and was unaware of the existence of an abandoned, hand-operatedcable car that crossed the river1⁄2 mile (800 m) downstream from where he had previously crossed.[13] At this point, McCandless headed back to the bus and re-established his camp. He posted anS.O.S. note on the bus, stating:
Attention Possible Visitors. S.O.S. I need your help. I am injured, near death, and too weak to hike out of here. I am all alone, this is no joke. In the name of God, please remain to save me. I am out collecting berries close by and shall return this evening. Thank you, Chris McCandless. August ?[25]
McCandless's final written journal entry, noted as "Day 107", simply read, "BEAUTIFUL BLUE BERRIES."[26] Days 108 through 112 contained no words and were marked only with slashes, and on Day 113, there was no entry.[27] The exact date and time of his death are unknown. Near the time of his death, McCandless took a picture of himself waving while holding a written note, which read:
I HAVE HAD A HAPPY LIFE AND THANK THE LORD. GOODBYE AND MAY GOD BLESS ALL![28]
On September 6, 1992, a hunter who was looking for shelter for the night came upon the converted bus where McCandless had been staying. Upon entering, he smelled what he thought was rotting food and discovered "a lump" in a sleeping bag in the back of the bus. The hunter radioed police, who arrived the following day. State troopers found McCandless'sdecomposing remains in the sleeping bag.[27]
In his bookInto the Wild (1996), Jon Krakauer proposes two factors that may have contributed to McCandless's death.
Krakauer wrote McCandless could have died of "rabbit starvation", officially known as protein poisoning, from over-relying on lean meat for nutrition.[29]
Krakauer also speculated that McCandless might have been poisoned by a toxicalkaloid calledswainsonine, after eatingsweet-vetch seeds (Hedysarum alpinum orHedysarum mackenzii) containing the toxin, or possibly by amold that can grow on them, when he put them into a plastic bag.[30] Swainsonine inhibits themetabolism ofglycoproteins, which leads to starvation despite ample food consumption.[6]
In an article in the September 2007 issue ofMen's Journal, correspondentMatthew Power states that extensive laboratory testing showed there were no toxins or alkaloids present in the sweet-vetch seeds McCandless had been eating. Thomas Clausen, then-head of the chemistry and biochemistry department atUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks, said, "I tore that plant apart. There were no toxins. No alkaloids. I'd eat it myself."[31] Further, there are no accounts in modern medical literature of a person being poisoned by this species of plant.[3] Power argued that McCandless "couldn't catch enough food to survive, and simply starved to death".[31]
In 2013, a new hypothesis was proposed. Ronald Hamilton, a retired bookbinder at theIndiana University of Pennsylvania,[6] suggested a link between the symptoms described by McCandless and the poisoning ofJewish prisoners in theconcentration camp atVapniarca. He put forward the proposal that McCandless starved to death because he was suffering from paralysis in his legs induced bylathyrism, which prevented him from gathering food or hiking.[32] Lathyrism may be caused byoxalyldiaminopropionic acid (ODAP) poisoning from seeds ofHedysarum alpinum.
The ODAP, a toxicamino acid, had not been detected by Clausen's previous studies of the seeds because he had suspected and tested for a toxicalkaloid, rather than an amino acid, as no scientist had previously suspected thatHedysarum alpinum seeds contained this toxin. The protein would be relatively harmless to someone who was well-nourished, with access to a normal diet, but would be toxic to someone who wasmalnourished, physically stressed, and on an irregular and insufficient diet, as McCandless was.[33]
As Krakauer points out, McCandless's field guide did not warn of any dangers of eating the seeds, which were not known to be toxic when the guide was published. Krakauer suspects that this is the meaning of McCandless's journal entry of July 30, which states, "EXTREMELY WEAK. FAULT OF POT[ATO] SEED. MUCH TROUBLE JUST TO STAND UP. STARVING. GREAT JEOPARDY."[34]
In September 2013, Krakauer published an article inThe New Yorker following up on Hamilton's claims.[6] A sample of freshHedysarum alpinum seeds was sent to a laboratory forHPLC analysis. Results showed that the seeds contained 0.394% beta-ODAP by weight, a concentration well within the levels known to cause lathyrism in humans, although the interpretation of the results has been disputed by other chemists.[5] The article notes that while occasional ingestion of foodstuffs containing ODAP is not hazardous for healthy individuals eating a balanced diet, "individuals suffering frommalnutrition, stress, and acute hunger are especially sensitive to ODAP, and are thus highly susceptible to the incapacitating effects of lathyrism after ingesting theneurotoxin".[6]
In March 2015, Krakauer co-authored a scientific analysis of theHedysarum alpinum seeds McCandless ate. Instead of ODAP, the report found relatively high levels of L-canavanine (anantimetabolite toxic to mammals) in theH. alpinum seeds and concluded "it is highly likely that the consumption of H. alpinum seeds contributed to the death of Chris McCandless."[8]
The converted green and white bus where McCandless lived and died became a well-known destination for hikers. Known as "The Magic Bus", the 1946International Harvester was abandoned by road workers in 1961 on the Stampede Trail. A plaque in McCandless's memory was affixed to the interior by his father, Walt McCandless.[35] McCandless's life became the subject of numerous articles, books, films, and documentaries, which helped elevate his life to the status ofmodern myth.[36] He became a romantic figure to some, inspired by what they see as his free-spiritedtranscendentalism, but to others, he is a controversial, misguided person.[31][37][38]
"The Magic Bus" became a pilgrimage destination for trekkers who would camp at the vehicle. Some of these experienced their own difficulties, or even died attempting to cross the Teklanika River.[36][37][39] According to one historian, the bus had become "a latter-daylieu de mémoire" — a “site of memory" that both "stored and secreted communal remembrance."[40]
On June 18, 2020, various government agencies coordinated with anAlaska Army National Guard training mission to remove the bus, deemed a public safety issue after at least 15 people had to be rescued and at least two people died while attempting to cross the Teklanika River to reach the bus.[41] It was flown viaCH-47 Chinook helicopter to Healy, then driven via flatbed truck to an undisclosed location.[42][43][44][41] On September 24, 2020, theMuseum of the North at theUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks announced it was the permanent home of McCandless's "Magic Bus 142", which will be restored and exhibited outdoors.[45] It was exhibited indoors for two years, until October, 2023, but as of 2024 is being kept in storage until sufficient funds for restoration are raised.[46]
McCandless has been a polarizing figure since his story came to widespread public attention with the publication of Krakauer's January 1993Outside article.[31][37] While the author and many others have a sympathetic view of the young traveler,[47] others, particularly Alaskans, have expressed negative views about McCandless and those who romanticize his fate.[48]
AlaskanPark Ranger Peter Christian wrote:
When you consider McCandless from my perspective, you quickly see that what he did wasn't even particularly daring, just stupid, tragic, and inconsiderate. First off, he spent very little time learning how to actually live in the wild. He arrived at the Stampede Trail without even a map of the area. If he [had] had a good map he could have walked out of his predicament [...] Essentially, Chris McCandless committed suicide.[48]
Ken Ilgunas, also an Alaskan Park Ranger and the author ofThe McCandless Mecca,[49] wrote in response:
Before I go any further, I should say that Pete is a really good guy [...] But with that said, I think Pete is very, very wrong. [...] Because I am in the unique position as both an Alaskan park ranger and a person who is, in many ways, like Chris McCandless, I feel I can speak with some authority on the subject. [...] McCandless, of course, did not commit suicide. He starved to death, accidentally poisoned himself, or a combination of the two.[50]
Sherry Simpson, writing in theAnchorage Press, described her trip to the bus with a friend, and their reaction upon reading the comments that tourists had left lauding McCandless as an insightful,Thoreau-like figure:
Among my friends and acquaintances, the story of Christopher McCandless makes great after-dinner conversation. Much of the time I agree with the "he had a death wish" camp because I don't know how else to reconcile what we know of his ordeal. Now and then I venture into the "what a dumbshit" territory, tempered by brief alliances with the "he was just another romantic boy on an all-American quest" partisans. Mostly I'm puzzled by the way he's emerged as a hero.[51]
Krakauer defends McCandless, claiming that what critics point to as arrogance was merely McCandless's desire for "being the first to explore a blank spot on the map." He continues: "In 1992, however, there were no more blank spots on the map—not in Alaska, not anywhere. But Chris, with his idiosyncratic logic, came up with an elegant solution to this dilemma: He simply got rid of the map. In his own mind, if nowhere else, theterra would thereby remainincognita."[52]
Krakauer's approximately 9,000-word article "Death of an Innocent" (January 1993) was published inOutside.[53] Chip Brown's full-length article on McCandless, "I Now Walk Into the Wild" (February 8, 1993), was published inThe New Yorker.[4] Jon Krakauer's non-fiction bookInto the Wild (1996) expands upon his 1993Outside article and retraces McCandless's travels leading up to the hiker's eventual death.
McCandless's story was adapted by screenwriter Chip Johannessen into a 1998 episode ofChris Carter's television seriesMillennium, titled "Luminary."[54]
Aneponymous 2007 film adaptation ofInto the Wild, directed bySean Penn withEmile Hirsch portraying McCandless, received a number of awards, including Best Picture from theAmerican Film Institute.[55]Ron Lamothe's documentaryThe Call of the Wild (2007) also covers McCandless's life story.[56]
The bookBack to the Wild (2011) compiles photographs, postcards and journal entries by McCandless. APBS documentary uncovering some additional information, with interviews, titledReturn to the Wild: The Chris McCandless Story, first aired on the PBS network in November 2014.[57]
In 2014, Carine McCandless, Chris' sister, publishedThe Wild Truth, a memoir of her life.[58] It detailed their abusive home life, providing further context to Chris' actions.[59]
The podcastYou're Wrong About discussed McCandless for its February 27, 2023 episode.[60] The episode, with guestBlair Braverman, reviews several topics regarding the life, death, and legacy of McCandless and his impact on discussion of wilderness, Alaska, and domestic violence.
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