Chopsticks are shaped pairs of equal-length sticks that have been used askitchen andeating utensils in most countries of theSinosphere for over three millennia. They are held in the dominant hand, secured by fingers, and wielded as extensions of the hand, to pick up food.
Originating inChina, chopsticks later spread to other parts of the Sinosphere such asKorea,Japan andVietnam. Chopsticks have become more accepted in connection withEast Asian food in theWest, especially in cities with significant East Asiandiaspora communities. The use of chopsticks has also spread to theSoutheast Asia either via the Chinese diaspora inMalaysia,Singapore, andThailand or through some dishes such as noodles that may require chopsticks.[citation needed]
Chopsticks are smoothed, and frequently tapered. They are traditionally made ofwood,bamboo,metal,ivory, andceramics, and in modern days, increasingly available in non-traditional materials such asplastic,stainless steel, and eventitanium. Chopsticks are often seen as requiring practice and skill to master to be used as an eating utensil. In some countries, failing to follow etiquette in their use is frowned upon, though such feelings are generally lesser than they once were.
Chopsticks have been around and used since at least theShang dynasty (1766–1122 BCE). However, theHan dynasty historianSima Qian wrote that it is likely that chopsticks were also used in the precedingXia dynasty and even the earlierErlitou culture, although finding archeological evidence from this era is difficult.[1]
The earliest evidence of chopsticks uncovered so far consists of six chopsticks, made ofbronze, 26 centimeters (10 in) long, and 1.1 to 1.3 centimeters (0.43 to 0.51 in) wide, excavated from theRuins of Yin nearAnyang (Henan). These are dated roughly to 1200 BC, during the Shang dynasty. They were supposed to have been used for cooking.[2][3][4] The earliest known textual reference to the use of chopsticks comes from theHan Feizi, a philosophical text written byHan Fei (c. 280–233 BC) in the 3rd century BC.[5]
The wide diffusion of chopsticks in the Chinese culture is sometimes attributed to theConfucian philosophy that emphasizes family harmony as the basis for civil order.[6] Some modern writers have associated chopsticks with traditional Confucian values of moderation, civility, and nonviolence. For example, it is sometimes said that "knives are for warriors, but chopsticks are for scholars", a modern aphorism that reflects symbolic interpretations of dining customs. However, this phrase does not appear in any known classical Confucian texts, and there is no historical evidence that Confucius made this statement.
Similarly, a popular quote attributed to Mencius—"The honorable and upright man keeps well away from both the slaughterhouse and the kitchen[7] ... and he allows no knives on his table"—only partially reflects classical writings. The first part is a paraphrase of a real line from theMencius (Liang Hui Wang I), but the latter sentence is a modern addition not found in ancient texts. As such, attributions of this kind should be understood as contemporary interpretations rather than direct quotations from Confucian sources. Confucius' reference to chopsticks in hisBook of Rites suggests these items were widely known in theWarring States period (c. 475–221 BC).[8]
Silver chopsticks, spoon, and bowl from theSong dynasty (960–1279)
The first chopsticks were used for cooking, stirring the fire, serving or seizing bits of food, and not as eating utensils. One reason was that before theHan dynasty,millet was predominant in North China, Korea and parts of Japan. While chopsticks were used for cooking, millet porridge was eaten with spoons at that time.[9]: 29–35 The use of chopsticks in the kitchen continues to this day.
Ryōribashi (料理箸) are Japanese kitchen chopsticks used inJapanese cuisine. They are used in the preparation ofJapanese food, and are not designed for eating. These chopsticks allow handling of hot food with one hand, and are used like regular chopsticks. These chopsticks have a length of 30 centimeters (12 in) or more, and may be looped together with a string at the top. They are usually made frombamboo. For deep frying, however, metal chopsticks with bamboo handles are preferred, as tips of regular bamboo chopsticks become discolored and greasy after repeated use in hot oil. The bamboo handles protect against heat.
Similarly, Vietnamese cooks useĐũa cả (𥮊奇) or "grand chopsticks" in cooking, and for serving rice from the pot.[10]
When a wetted end of a wooden chopstick is dipped into cooking oil, a sizzling sound due to bubbles bursting indicates that the temperature is suitable for deep-frying. Instead, loud popping or crackling implies that the temperature is too high, whereas silence implies that it is too low.[11][12]
A painting of a Japanese woman using chopsticks, byUtagawa Kuniyoshi
Chopsticks began to be used as eating utensils during theHan dynasty, as rice consumption increased. During this period,spoons continued to be used alongside chopsticks as eating utensils at meals. It was not until theMing dynasty that chopsticks came into exclusive use for both serving and eating. They then acquired the namekuaizi and the present shape.[13][9]: 6–8
The use of chopsticks as both cooking and eating utensils spread throughout East and Southeast Asia over time. Scholars such as Isshiki Hachiro and Lynn White have noted how the world was split among three dining customs, or food cultural spheres. There are those that eat with their fingers, those that use forks and knives, and then there is the "chopsticks cultural sphere", consisting of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.[9]: 1–3, 67–92
As HanChinese emigration percolated, they spread the usage of chopsticks as eating utensils to South and Southeast Asian countries including Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Nepal, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore and Thailand. In Singapore and Malaysia, the Han Chinese traditionally consume all food with chopsticks, while ethnicIndians andMalays (especially inSingapore) use chopsticks primarily to consume noodle dishes. Overall, the use of either chopsticks, a spoon, or a fork, is interchangeable in these regions.[14][15] In Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Nepal chopsticks are generally used only to consume noodles.[9]: 1–8
Similarly, chopsticks have become more accepted in connection with East Asian cuisine around the world, inHawaii, the West Coast of North America,[16][17] and cities with Overseas Asian communities all around the globe.
The earliest European reference to chopsticks comes in the PortugueseSuma Oriental by Tomé Pires, who wrote in 1515 in Malacca: "They [the Chinese] eat with two sticks and the earthenware or china bowl in their left hand close to the mouth, with the two sticks to suck in. This is the Chinese way."[18]
In ancientwritten Chinese, the character for chopsticks waszhu (箸;Middle Chinese reconstruction:d̪jwo-). Although it may have been widely used in ancient vernacular Chinese, its use was eventually replaced by the pronunciation for the characterkuài (快), meaning "quick". The original character, though still used in writing, is rarely used in modern spoken Mandarin. It, however, is preserved in Chinese languages such asHokkien andTeochew, as theMin Chinese languages are directly descended fromOld Chinese rather than Middle Chinese.
TheStandard Chinese term for chopsticks iskuàizi (筷子). The first character (筷) is apictophonetic (semantic-phonetic) compound created with a phonetic part meaning "quick" (快), and a semantic part meaning "bamboo" (竹), using theradical (⺮).[19][20]
The English word "chopstick" may have derived fromChinese Pidgin English, in whichchop chop meant "quickly".[21][22][23] According to theOxford English Dictionary, the earliest published use of the word is in the 1699 bookVoyages and Descriptions byWilliam Dampier: "they are called by the English seamen Chopsticks".[24] Another possibility is that the term is derived fromchow (orchow chow), which is also a pidgin word stemming from Southeast Asia meaning "food". Thus chopsticks would simply mean "food sticks".
InJapanese, chopsticks are calledhashi (箸). A common misconception is that they are referred asotemoto (おてもと), a phrase commonly on the wrappers of disposable chopsticks.Te means hand andmoto means the area under or around something. The precedingo is used for politeness. Otemoto therefore can refer to any small plate or serving utensil placed at a serving table.
InOkinawan, chopsticks are calledmēshi (めーし) as a vulgar word,[25]umēshi (うめーし) as a polite word,[26] or'nmēshi ぅんめーし(御箸[citation needed], ʔNmeesi).[27] A special type of chopsticks made from thehimehagi (Polygala japonica) stem is calledsōrō 'nmēshi (そーろーぅんめーし,sooroo ʔNmeesi精霊御箸[citation needed]). These are used at altars of offerings inKyū Bon (oldBon Festival).[28]
InKorean,저 (箸,jeo) is used in the compoundjeotgarak (젓가락), which is composed ofjeo ("chopsticks") andgarak ("stick").Jeo cannot be used alone, but can be found in other compounds such assujeo (수저; "spoon and chopsticks").
A pair of gold chopsticks and two gold spoons found in the tomb of Prince Zhu Zhanji ofMing (1411–1441)
Example of ivory chopsticks made prior to the ivory ban in Asia
Chopsticks come in a wide variety of styles, with differences in geometry and material. Depending on the country and the region some chopstick styles are more common than others.
Length: Chopsticks range from 23 to 26 centimeters (9–10 in) long, tapering to one end. Very long, large chopsticks, usually about 30 to 40 centimeters (12–16 in), are used for cooking, especially for deep frying foods.
Cross-section: Chopsticks may have round, square, hexagonal, or other polygonal cross-sections. Usually the edges are rounded off so there are no sharp 90° surface angles in square chopsticks. Korean chopsticks are notable for having flat handles, instead of regular full bodies as in Chinese, Vietnamese and Japanese chopsticks.
Taper: Chopsticks are usually tapered in the end used for picking up food. Chinese and Vietnamese chopsticks are more commonly blunt, while Japanese ones tend to be sharp and pointed in style. Korean chopsticks typically have sharp tapers.
Tips: Some chopsticks have a rough surface for the tip end, to provide better friction for gripping food. The gripping surfaces may be carved as circumferential grooves, or provided as a rough texture.
Material: A large variety of materials is available, including bamboo, wood, plastic, metal, bone, jade,porcelain, and ivory.
Bamboo and wooden chopsticks are relatively inexpensive, low inthermal conduction, and provide good grip for holding food. They can warp and deteriorate with continued use if they are of the unvarnished or unlacquered variety. Almost all cooking and disposable chopsticks are made of bamboo or wood. Disposable unlacquered chopsticks are used especially in restaurants. These often come as a piece of wood that is partially cut and must be split into two chopsticks by the user (serving as proof that they have not been previously used). In Japanese, these disposable implements are known aswaribashi (割り箸)
Plastic chopsticks are relatively inexpensive, low in thermal conduction, and resistant to wear.Melamine is one of the more commonly used plastics for chopsticks. Plastic chopsticks are not as effective as wood and bamboo for picking up food, because they tend to be slippery. Also, plastic chopsticks cannot be used for cooking, since high temperatures may damage the chopsticks and produce toxic compounds.
Metal chopsticks are durable and easy to clean, but present a slippery surface.Stainless steel is a common metal used to make chopsticks, buttitanium chopsticks can be purchased at prices comparable to a good pair of wooden chopsticks. Silver is still common among wealthy families, and as part of gift sets.
Other materials such as ivory, jade, gold, and silver are typically chosen for luxury. Silver-tipped chopsticks were often used as a precaution by wealthy people, based on the myth that silver would turn black upon contact with poison.[30]
Embellishments: Wooden or bamboo chopsticks can be painted orlacquered for decoration and waterproofing. Metal chopsticks are sometimes roughened or scribed to make them less slippery. Higher-priced metal chopstick pairs are sometimes connected by a short chain at the untapered end to prevent their separation.
Chinese chopsticks tend to be longer than other styles, at about 27 centimeters (11 in). They are thicker, with squared or rounded cross-sections. They end in either wide, blunt, flat tips or tapered pointed tips. Blunt tips are more common with plastic ormelamine varieties, whereas pointed tips are more common in wood and bamboo varieties. Chinese restaurants more commonly offer melamine chopsticks for its durability and ease of sanitation. Within individual household, bamboo chopsticks are more commonly found.
It is common for Japanese sticks to be of shorter length for women, and children's chopsticks in smaller sizes are common. Many Japanese chopsticks have circumferential grooves at the eating end, which helps prevent food from slipping. Japanese chopsticks are typically sharp and pointed, in order to dissect fish and seafood. They are traditionally made of wood or bamboo, and are lacquered.
Lacquered chopsticks are known in Japanese asnuribashi, in several varieties, depending on where they are made and what types of lacquers are used in glossing them.[9]: 80–87 Japanese traditional lacquered chopsticks are produced in the city ofObama in Fukui Prefecture, and come in many colors coated in natural lacquer. They are decorated withmother-of-pearl fromabalone, and with eggshell to impart a waterproof coating to the chopsticks, extending their life.[31]
Edo Kibashi chopsticks have been made by Tokyo craftspeople since the beginning of the Taishō period (1912–1926) roughly 100 years ago. These chopsticks use high-grade wood (ebony, red sandalwood, ironwood, Japanese box-trees, or maple), which craftspeople plane by hand.[32] Edo Kibashi chopsticks may be pentagonal, hexagonal or octagonal in cross-section. The tips of these chopsticks are rounded to prevent damage to the dish or the bowl.[33]
In Japan, chopsticks for cooking are known asryoribashi (料理箸 りょうりばし),[34] and assaibashi (菜箸 さいばし) when used to transfer cooked food to the dishes it will be served in.[35]
The earliest uses of chopsticks in Korea seem to date back to theThree Kingdoms of Korea with the oldest chopsticks excavated from the royal tomb ofBaekje.[36] Chopsticks used by Koreans are often made of metal. It is believed that the uses of metallic chopsticks evolved from the royal practice of using silver chopsticks to detect poison in food, but the exact reason is debated.[37] Depending on the historical era, the metallic composition of Korean chopsticks varied. In the past, such as during theGoryeo era, chopsticks were made ofbronze. During theJoseon era, chopsticks used by royalty were made of silver, as its oxidizing properties could often be used to detect whether or not food intended for royals had been tampered with. In the present day, the majority of Korean metal chopsticks are made of stainless steel. Due to metal's slippery nature, the chopsticks are stamped flat for better gripping.[37] High-end sets, such as those intended as gifts, are often made of sterling silver. Chopsticks made of varying woods (typically bamboo) are also common in Korea. Many Korean chopsticks are ornately decorated at the grip.
In North and South Korea, chopsticks of medium-length with a small, flat rectangular shape are paired with a spoon, made of the same material. The set is calledsujeo, aportmanteau of the Korean words for spoon and chopsticks. This (the historical extensive use of a spoon in addition to chopsticks) is also a feature unique to Korea; most chopstick-using countries have either eliminated the use of spoons, or have limited their use as eating utensils. It is traditional to restsujeo onspoon and chopstick rest, so chopsticks and the spoon do not touch the table surface.
In the past, materials forsujeo varied with social class:Sujeo used in the court were made withgold,silver, orcloisonné, while commoners usedbrass orwoodensujeo. Today,sujeo is usually made withstainless steel, althoughbangjja is also popular in more traditional settings.
Đũa cả, a type of Vietnamese chopsticks used to scoop rice. In the photo is the Đũa cả artifact of theChứt people.Forks and chopsticks in a Vietnamese restaurant in France
Vietnamese chopsticks are long sticks that taper to a blunt point. They are usually big and thick at one end and thinner at the other, thin ends are often used to pick up food. They are traditionally made of bamboo[38] or lacquered wood. Today, plastic chopsticks are also used due to their durability. However,bamboo orwooden chopsticks are often more used in the village countryside. Vietnam has a number of specialized chopsticks for cooking and stirring rice such asđũa cả (lit. main chopsticks) are large, flat chopsticks used to serve rice from a pot and there is a specialized type of chopsticks for stir-frying, they are usually 10–20 cm longer than normal chopsticks calledđũa xào (lit. chopsticks for sautéed foods).
Mongolian chopsticks were usually made of bones, and their tips were covered with silver, every rich man kept the chopsticks in a sheath. At the same time, sticks were not often used directly for eating, being, for the most part, an element of decor and confirmation of the status of the carrier. Apart from theKhalkha Mongols and Mongols fromInner Mongolia of China, chopsticks have also been found in old traditionalBuryat andKalmyk knives' sets.[citation needed]
Mongolian knife set
Later, the Mongols also adopted chopsticks for dining. Archaeological evidence from the 1970s to late 1980s reveals murals in two tombs—likely belonging to eitherKhitan or Mongol nobility—depicting a serving maid holding a large bowl in her left hand and a pair of chopsticks in her right, as if preparing to stir food for her master. These findings demonstrate that after conquering China in the late 13th century, the Mongols gradually assimilated chopsticks into their culinary customs, blending them with traditional nomadic utensils like knives.[39]
Historically, Thais tended to use their hands when eating their native cuisine.Ethnic Chinese immigrants introduced chopsticks for foods that require them. Restaurants serving other Asian cuisines that utilize chopsticks use the style of chopstick, if any, appropriate for that cuisine.Fork andspoon, adopted from the West, are now the most commonly used.[40]
InMalay-speaking countries, there may be several names for chopsticks. In Borneo, bamboo chopsticks calledcandas are used to eatambuyat orlinut inBorneo, a native staple food of glutinous porridge made fromsago. A pair ofcandas is typically adjoined at the back. In Indonesian chopsticks may be calledsumpit. In Malaysia they may be calledpenyepit.
Lifelong users and adult learners alike, around the world, hold chopsticks in more than one way. But there is a general consensus on a standard grip being the most efficient way to grip and wield chopsticks.[41]
Regardless of whether users wield the standard grip, or one of many alternative grips, their goals are the same. They hold the two sticks in the dominant hand, secured by various fingers and parts of the hand, such that the sticks become an extension of the hand.Tsung-Dao Lee, a Nobel Prize laureate in physics, summarized it thus: "Although simple, the two sticks perfectly use the physics of leverage. Chopsticks are an extension of human fingers. Whatever fingers can do, chopsticks can do, too."[9]: 14
Alternative grips differ in their effectiveness in picking up food. They differ in the amount of pinching (compression) power they can generate. Some grips can generate substantial, outward extension force, while others are unable to do so.
The standard grip calls for the top chopstick to be held by the tip of the thumb, the tip of the index finger, and the middle finger knuckle. These three fingers surround the top stick from three sides, and firmly secure the stick as if they were holding a pen. The three fingers, using this tripod-like hold, can wiggle and twirl the top stick, as if it were an extension of them. The rear end of the top stick rests on the base of the index finger.
The bottom chopstick, however, generally remains immobile. It is secured by the base of the thumb, which presses the stick against the knuckle of the ring finger, and against the purlicue. The thumb therefore does double duty. It holds the bottom stick immobile, and at the same time, it also moves the top stick. The thumb must be flattened, in order to perform this double duty.[42]
In chopstick-using cultures, learning to use chopsticks is part of a child's development process. The right way to use chopsticks is usually taught within the family.[B] But many young children find their own ways of wielding chopsticks in the process.[41] There exists a variety of learning aids that parents purchase to help their children learn to use chopsticks properly.
Adult learners, on the other hand, may acquire the skill through personal help from friends, or from instructions printed on wrapper sleeves of some disposable chopsticks. Various video hosting platforms also provide a plethora of how-to videos on learning to use chopsticks. All the same, adult learners too, often find their own alternative grips to using chopsticks.
In general, learning aids attempt to steer learners towards the established standard grip. These aids attempt to illustrate or enforce the right standard grip mechanical leverage.
The learning process usually starts with a proper initial placement of fingers, per standard grip. It is crucial for learners to understand how to hold both sticks firmly in the hand, as extensions of fingers.
The next step involves learning the right motion of fingers, in order to move the top stick from the closed posture where tips of chopsticks touch, to the open posture where tips are extended wide apart for embracing food items. The open posture and the closed posture define the two ends of maximum standard grip motion. In most eating situations, tips of chopsticks need not be extended this wide apart.
Both finger placement and standard grip motion rely on the thumb being flattened. With this flat thumb pose, the base of the thumb can exert enough force to pin the bottom stick against the knuckle of the ring finger, and against the purlicue. At the same time, the tip of the thumb pushes back against the index finger and the knuckle of the middle finger, as all three wield the top stick in concert.[43]
The shape of the flat thumb is such that the bottom stick is prevented from shaking loose, and from inching closer to the top stick, during repeated standard grip motion. Keeping the two chopsticks separated far enough, at the place they intersect with the thumb, is important for the standard grip. At the open posture, it allows tips to extend wide apart, without rear ends of chopsticks colliding. At the closed posture, it enables better control over tips of chopsticks.[B]
The most popular chopstick learning aid is arguably the wrapper-sleeve-and-rubber-band model, which is used in East Asian restaurants around the world. These are mostly operated like tweezers, or tongs. While they are useful for picking up food, they do not help learners acquire the standard grip. Many similar chopstick inventions can be found on the market, such asKwik Stix. Some inventions combine other utensils with chopsticks. These include The Chork, the Fork and Knife Chopsticks, etc.
Finger placement learning aid
Some learning aids help learners with the initial placement of fingers, per standard grip. This can be done by making "index finger", "thumb tip", or equivalent labels at the right places on chopsticks. Often these chopsticks will have finger-shaped grooves carved out of sticks, to further help learners find the right placement. Other finger placement chopsticks instead carve circumferential grooves into sticks, in place of finger-shaped ones.
Exoskeleton learning aids
Some learning aids allow users to wield two sticks as extensions of their fingers, without the exact finger dynamics required by the standard grip. Some models provide hoops through which fingers can move the top chopstick as anexoskeleton of these fingers. Other models use finger-shaped tabs instead to achieve the same, for both top and bottom sticks. Yet other models combine finger placement features with the above. Usually these models connect the two chopsticks with a bridge and a hinge, holding the two sticks in the right configuration on behalf of users.
Westerners using chopsticks in a tourist restaurant in mainland China
Chopsticks are used in many parts of Asia and principles of etiquette are similar, but finer points can differ from region to region. Chopstick manners were gradually shaped to work with a culture's particular dietary varieties and habit. Etiquette developed for primarily individual servings eaten on the floor (or tatami in the case of Japan) could be different from communal meals eaten around a table while seated on chairs. The need for serving or communal chopsticks similarly differ. In some cultures it is customary to lift a bowl to the mouth, when the only eating utensil used is chopsticks. In other cultures, lifting a bowl closer to the mouth is frowned upon as equivalent to begging, as the local custom is to use chopsticks for chunky food, and a spoon for liquid food.[9]: 102-119
In chopstick-using countries, holding chopsticks incorrectly reflects negatively on a child's parents and home environment. There are frequent news articles on the alarming decline of children's abilities to use chopsticks correctly. Similarly, stabbing food due to one's inability to wield chopsticks with dexterity is also frowned upon.[44]: 73-75[45][46]
In general, chopsticks should not be left vertically stuck into a bowl of rice because it resembles theritual ofincense-burning that symbolizes "feeding" the dead.[47][48][49]
When eating rice from a bowl, it is normal to hold the rice bowl up to one's mouth and use chopsticks to push or shovel the rice directly into the mouth.
It is traditionally acceptable to transfer food using one's own chopsticks to closely related people. Family members transfer a choice piece of food from a dish to that of an elder person before dinner starts, as a sign of respect. In modern times, the use of serving or communal chopsticks for this transfer has gained momentum, for better sanitary practices.[50]
Chopsticks, when not in use, are placed either to the right or below one's plate in a Chinese table setting.[44]: 35
It is poor etiquette to tap chopsticks on the edge of one's bowl; beggars make this sort of noise to attract attention.[51][52]
One should not "dig" or "search" through food for something in particular. This is sometimes known as "digging one's grave" or "grave-digging" and is extremely poor form.[9]: 116
The pointed ends of the chopsticks should be placed on achopstick rest when the chopsticks are not being used. However, when a chopstick rest is not available as is often the case in restaurants usingwaribashi (disposable chopsticks), chopstick wrappers may be folded into a rest.[48]
Reversing chopsticks to use the opposite clean end can be used to move food from a communal plate, and is acceptable if there are no communal chopsticks.[49] In general, reversing chopsticks (逆さ箸,sakasabashi) is frowned upon, however, because of the association to the celebratory chopsticks (祝い箸,iwai-bashi), where both ends of chopsticks are tapered, but only one end is for humankind to use, while the other is for use by God.[53]
Chopsticks should not be crossed on a table, as this symbolizes death.[54]: 154
Chopsticks should be placed in the horizontal direction, with the tips to the left.[54]: 61
In formal use,waribashi should be replaced into the wrapper at the end of a meal.[48]
It is rude to stand chopsticks vertically in rice, or pass food from one pair chopsticks to another, as these are reminiscent of parts of Japanese funeral traditions.[55]
Simple Korean table (chopsticks and a spoon placed palewise, on the right side of rice and soup)
In Korea, chopsticks are paired with a spoon, forming asujeo set.Sujeo are placed on the right side and parallel tobap (rice) andguk (soup). Chopsticks are laid on the right side of the paired spoon. One must never put the chopsticks to the left of the spoon. Chopsticks are only laid to the left during the food preparation for the funeral or the memorial service for the deceased family members, known asjesa.[56]
As in China and Japan, chopsticks are not stuck into food and left standing up, as this resembles food offerings at a grave for deceased ancestors.[57]
The spoon is used forbap (rice) and soupy dishes, while most otherbanchan (side dishes) are eaten with chopsticks.[58]
It is considered uncultured and rude to pick up a plate or a bowl to bring it closer to one's mouth, and eat its content with chopsticks. If the food lifted "drips", a spoon is used under the lifted food to catch the dripping juices. Otherwise however, holding both a spoon and chopsticks in one hand simultaneously or in both hands is usually frowned upon.[59]
Most Vietnamese people also use chopsticks. Its customs are heavily influenced by its Chinese counterparts, including using chopsticks exclusively as eating utensils. Consequently, Vietnamese chopstick etiquette is very similar to the Chinese version.[9]: 69, 73 For instance, it is deemed proper to hold the bowl close to the mouth, just like is the case in China. Holding chopsticks vertically up like incense sticks is taboo. Tapping bowls with chopsticks is frowned upon.[60]
Although there are some similarities with China, they still have some differences. Some other common Vietnamese taboos are:
Placing chopsticks unevenly on the dining table: Before and during a meal, do not place long or short chopsticks on the table, because this is considered a bad omen. Influenced by the concept of China, the ancients also believed that this is similar to the coffin of the dead, made from 2 short wooden boards and 3 long wooden boards, representing bad luck. You should pay attention to equalize chopsticks when eating, not only to avoid possible bad luck but in fact it makes it easier to pick up food.
Knocking chopsticks into the bowl: The act of tapping chopsticks on the side of a bowl is considered similar to a beggar. Because, in the past, only beggars used chopsticks to knock on pots to make the sound of begging for food. This is considered rude and unlucky and should absolutely be avoided, especially when dining with outsiders.
Index finger pointing out when holding chopsticks: In this usage, the thumb, middle finger, ring finger, and little finger hold the chopsticks, while the index finger sticks out. It's like constantly pointing fingers at others, meaning to criticize and scold others. In addition, when talking during meals, pointing at others with chopsticks is also extremely disrespectful.
Crossing chopsticks: This behavior usually goes unnoticed. When eating, many people arbitrarily put their chopsticks on the table. The ancients considered this behavior to be counterproductive, denying all people sitting at the same table.
Using chopsticks to plug the rice bowl: This is taboo because it is similar to sticking incense in an incense bowl, implying an invitation to the deceased, bringing bad spirits to the meal.
Using chopsticks to skewer food: If during a meal, chopsticks are inserted into the food, this is a kind of rude behavior, very impolite and taboo for the people sitting at the table.
Sucking or biting chopsticks: When eating, holding chopsticks in your mouth, biting back and forth with your mouth, and sometimes making noises is considered an act of lack of upbringing, meanness and disrespect. In addition, this behavior and the sound it makes also make others feel uncomfortable and offensive. Therefore, this is not advisable behavior.
Using a chopstick to stir the food: When eating rice but only using a chopstick to stir the plate of food, this must also be avoided, because it is considered to be insulting to those at the table.
Connecting chopsticks together: When serving food for others, in addition to having to turn the chopsticks to keep the recipient's hygiene, you also have to pay attention to pick up the food and put it in their bowl and avoid "joining chopsticks", that is, passing food from chopsticks to chopsticks of others. this brings bad luck because in some places, when cremating the dead, the ashes will be passed with chopsticks. You should avoid bringing bad luck to you.
Picking up and putting down without picking: In the past, well-educated girls were often taught to absolutely avoid using chopsticks to swing in the rice tray, choose food, and do not know where to lower the chopsticks to pick up the appropriate place.[clarification needed] This type of behavior is a typical manifestation of lack of cultivation, moreover, not treating anyone well enough to make others feel offensive. In modern society, this behavior also does not make good sense.
Searching through food: When eating rice but holding chopsticks in hand and constantly picking at food, in order to find a preferred food item, is likened to the act of "grave theft". This behavior also belongs to the behavior of lack of upbringing, causing offense.
Picking up spilled food: Using chopsticks to pick up food that is not neat or pick up one dish and spill it on another or on the table is considered extremely rude.[61]
In Cambodia, chopsticks, spoon and fork, and hands are the primary eating utensils. Although chopsticks are commonly used for noodle dishes, most Cambodians use chopsticks for any meal.[62] Because Cambodia adopted the spoon and fork later than neighboring countries such as Thailand, it is common to see Cambodians use chopsticks for any meals.[63] Forks are only used to help guide food onto the spoon. Forks are not used to shovel food into the mouth. For noodle dishes such askuyteav andnum banhchok, chopsticks are used. Cambodians do not use forks at all to put food in their mouth because they are seen as dangerous near the mouth area, and the soup spoon is used for the broth.[64][65]
Chopsticks in Malay-speaking countries such as Brunei, Indonesia, and other parts of Southeast Asia are used for eating noodles almost exclusively, whilst spoon and/or fork are used for eating rice, and sometimes use of hands as well. Typically most commonly seen with dishes such asmie goreng (fried noodles, Indonesia) ormee goreng (alsofried noodles, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore).
Mie Goreng (fried noodles) are often used with chopsticks and spoon.
Historically, Thai people used bare hands to eat and occasionally used a spoon and fork for curries or soup, the result of Western influence. But many Thai noodle dishes served in a bowl are eaten with chopsticks.[66] Unlike in China and in Vietnam, chopsticks are not used with a bowl of rice.[67] It is considered impolite to make a sound with chopsticks.[67] It is poor etiquette to rest or hold chopsticks pointing towards others, as pointing is considered disrespectful.[67]
The most widespread use of disposable chopsticks is in Japan, where around a total of 24 billion pairs are used each year,[68][69][70] which is equivalent to almost 200 pairs per person yearly.[71] In China, an estimated 45 billion pairs of disposable chopsticks are produced yearly.[71] This adds up to 1.66 million cubic meters (59×10^6 cu ft) of timber[72] or 25 million fully growntrees every year.[71]
In April 2006,China imposed a 5% tax on disposable chopsticks to reduce waste of natural resources byoverconsumption.[73][74] This measure had the most effect in Japan as many of its disposable chopsticks are imported from China,[71] which account for over 90% of the Japanese market.[70][75]
American manufacturers have begun exporting American-made chopsticks to China, usingsweet gum andpoplar wood as these materials do not need to be artificially lightened with chemicals or bleach, and have been seen as appealing to Chinese and other East Asian consumers.[76]
The American-born Taiwanese singerWang Leehom has publicly advocated the use ofreusable chopsticks made fromsustainable materials.[77][78] In Japan, reusable chopsticks are known asmaihashior maibashi (マイ箸, meaning "my chopsticks").[79][80]
A 2006Hong Kong Department of Health survey found that, since 2003, the proportion of people using distinctly separate serving chopsticks, spoons, or other utensils for serving food from a common dish has increased from 46% to 65%.[81]
^Still widely used across East Asia, but in China has become archaic in most Chinese dialects exceptMin Chinese.
^abThere is a lack of written literature on the variety of chopstick grips, naming of these, classifications of these, factors used to determine grip differences, etc. There is also a lack of literature on the presumed standard grip, its physics, and its mechanical leverage. Detailed written literature on how to learn the standard grip has yet to be discovered. For the time being, summaries written in this article on the use of chopsticks can be substantiated by direct observations of a person using chopsticks, and by watching online videos.[9]: 166-167
^H. T. Huang (Huang Xingzong).Fermentations and Food Science. Part 5 ofBiology and Biological Technology, volume 6 of Joseph Needham, ed.,Science and Civilisation in China, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000ISBN0-521-65270-7), p. 104.Archived 2023-03-25 at theWayback Machine.
^Scott, Mary (2012). "Chinese Food". In George J. Leonard (ed.).The Asian Pacific American Heritage: A Companion to Literature and Arts. Routledge.ISBN9781135580179.
^Reiber, Beth; Spencer, Janie (2010).Frommer's Japan. John Wiley & Sons. p. 37.ISBN978-0-470-54129-6.Archived from the original on 2024-04-04. Retrieved2020-10-16.The proper way to use a pair is to place the first chopstick between the base of the thumb and the top of the ring finger (this chopstick remains stationary) and the second one between the top of the thumb and the middle and index fingers.
^abcVardaman, James; Sasaki Vardaman, Michiko (2011).Japanese Etiquette Today: A Guide to Business & Social Customs. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 68–69.ISBN9781462902392.
^abDe Mente, Boye Lafayette (2011).Etiquette Guide to Japan: Know the rules that make the difference!. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 43–44.ISBN9781462902460.
^abTokyo YWCA World Fellowship Committee (1955).Japanese Etiquette: An Introduction. Tuttle Publishing. p. 154.ISBN9780804802901.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
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