| Chola invasion of Srivijaya | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part ofSouth-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I | |||||||
.svg) Rajendra Chola's Territories c. 1030 AD | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
| Chola Empire | Srivijaya | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Rajendra I Beemaseenan Amarabujangan Divakara Karunaakaran | Sangrama I (POW) Samara Vijayatunggavarman | ||||||
| Units involved | |||||||
| Chola Navy Chola Army | Srivijaya Navy Srivijaya Army | ||||||
In 1025 AD, theChola EmperorRajendra I launched naval invasions onSrivijaya inmaritime Southeast Asia, leading to the fall of theSailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya.[2]
Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in India's history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states ofSoutheast Asia. Several places in present-dayIndonesia andMalay Peninsula were invaded by Rajendra I of theChola dynasty.[3][4] The invasion furthered the expansion ofTamil merchant associations such as theManigramam,Ayyavole andAinnurruvar intoSoutheast Asia.[5][6][7][8]
The Chola invasion also coincided with return voyage of the greatBengaliBuddhist scholarAtiśa (c. 982–1054) fromSumatra toIndia andTibet in 1025.[9]
Throughout much of their history, ancient India and Indonesia maintained peaceful and friendly relations, making the Chola invasion a unique event in Asian history.[10]
In the 9th and 10th centuries,Srivijaya had close ties with thePala Empire inBengal. An 860Nalanda inscription records that MaharajaBalaputra of Srivijaya dedicated a monastery at theNalanda Mahavihara in Pala territory. Relations between Srivijaya and theChola dynasty ofsouthern India were cordial during the reign ofRaja Raja Chola I. In 1006, KingMaravijayattungavarman, a SrivijayanMaharaja from theSailendra dynasty, constructed theChudamani Vihara in the port town ofNagapattinam.[11] However, during the reign ofRajendra Chola I, relations deteriorated as the Cholas attacked Srivijayan cities.[12]
Srivijaya controlled two major naval choke points, theMalacca Strait and theSunda Strait, and was a significant trading empire with formidable naval forces. The northwest opening of the Malacca Strait was controlled from Kedah on theMalay Peninsula and fromPannai on theSumatran side, whileMalayu (inJambi) andPalembang controlled the southeast opening and the Sunda Strait. Srivijaya enforced a naval trade monopoly, compelling ships passing through their waters to stop at their ports or risk being plundered.[13]
The Cholas benefitted from bothagriculture and foreign trade. Their seafaring activities sometimes led to overseas trade and conquest, including inSoutheast Asia.[14]
The reasons for the Chola naval expedition are unclear. HistorianNilakanta Sastri suggested that the conflict may have arisen from Srivijayan attempts to obstruct Chola trade with the East, especially China, or perhaps from Rajendra's desire to extend hisdigvijaya (world conquest) across the sea, adding prestige to his reign.[10] Another theory posits that geopolitical and diplomatic factors motivated the invasion. KingSuryavarman I of theKhmer Empire sought assistance from Rajendra Chola I against theTambralinga kingdom.[15] In response, the Tambralinga kingdom sought aid from Srivijayan king Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman.[15][16]
The Chola invasion ofSrivijaya was a swift campaign that left Srivijaya unprepared. In the11th century, theChola navy had become a formidable force, while Srivijaya's sea power had weakened.[17] Indian ships typically sailed eastward across theBay of Bengal, stopping at ports in Lamuri,Aceh, orKedah in the Malay Peninsula before entering theMalacca Strait. However, the Chola fleet sailed directly to the west coast ofSumatra. The port ofBarus on North Sumatra’s west coast, controlled by Tamil trade guilds, served as a resupply point after crossing theIndian Ocean. From there, the Chola fleet sailed southward along Sumatra's west coast and entered theSunda Strait.[2]
The Srivijaya navy, stationed at Kedah near the northwest opening of the Malacca Strait, was unaware of the Chola invasion approaching from the south via the Sunda Strait. The first Srivijayan city to be attacked wasPalembang, the empire's capital. The sudden assault allowed the Cholas to sack the city, plundering theKadatuan royal palace and monasteries. TheThanjavur inscription records that Rajendra Chola captured KingSangrama Vijayottunggavarman of Srivijaya and seized treasures, including the Vidhyadara Torana, a jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijaya.[10]
Despite their success, the Cholas did not establish lasting control over the captured cities, as the campaign primarily involved fast-moving raids and plunder. The Chola fleet likely utilized theSoutheast Asianmonsoon winds to swiftly move between ports. This tactic of rapid, unexpected attacks contributed to the Cholas' success, as it prevented the Srivijayanmandala from organizing defenses, mounting a response, or seeking aid.[2][18] The war ended in a Chola victory, significantly weakening Srivijaya and breaking its maritime monopoly in the region.[15][16][19][20]
With the MaharajaSangrama Vijayottunggavarman imprisoned and most of its cities destroyed, the leaderlessSrivijaya mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion, marking the end of theSailendra dynasty. According to the 15th-centuryMalay Annals,Rajendra Chola I, after the successful naval raid in 1025 married Onang Kiu, the daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman.[21][22]
The invasion forcedSrivijaya to make peace withJavanese kingdom ofKahuripan. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of Sangrama Vijayottunggavarman, a Srivijayan princess who managed to escape the destruction of Palembang and came to the court of KingAirlangga inEast Java. She also became the queen consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035, Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen consort.[18]
This invasion gravely weakened theSrivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms likeKahuripan and its successor,Kediri inJava based on agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade.Sri Deva was enthroned as the new king and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court ofChina in 1028 CE.[18]Sanfoqi sent a mission to China in 1028, but this would refer to Malayu-Jambi, not Srivijaya-Palembang.[1]: 398, 405 No Srivijayan envoys came to China between 1028–1077, indicating that themandala of Srivijaya had faded. It is very possible that Srivijaya collapsed in 1025.[23]: 110 In the following centuries, Chinese chronicles still refer to "Sanfoqi", but this term probably refers to theMalayu-Jambi kingdom, evidenced by Chinese record ofSanfoqi Zhanbei guo (Jambi country of Sanfoqi). The last epigraphic evidence that mentions the word "Sriwijaya" or "Srivijaya" comes from the Tanjore inscription of the Chola kingdom in 1030 or 1031.[1]: 397, 398, 405
The Chola control over Srivijaya lasted for several decades. Chinese chronicles mentionedSanfoqi Zhu-nian guo which means "Chola country of Sanfoqi", likely referring to Kedah.Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo sent missions to China in 1077, 1079, 1082, 1088, and 1090. It is possible that the Cholas installed a crown prince in the Tamil-dominated area of the Malacca Straits.[1]: 398, 399, 405
Tamil colonization of the Malacca Straits seems to have lasted for a century. The Cholas left several inscriptions in northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. Tamil influence can be found in works of art (sculpture and temple architecture), it indicated government activity rather than commerce. Chola's grip on the northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula receded in the 12th century — the Tamil poemKalingatupparani of around 1120 mentionedKulottungga's destruction of Kadaram (Kedah). After that, Kedah disappeared from Indian sources.[1]: 398, 399
