Chocolate bars in dark, white, and milk varieties (top to bottom)
Chocolate is a food made from roasted and groundcocoa beans that can be a liquid, solid, or paste, either by itself or toflavor other foods. Cocoa beans are the processed seeds of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao). They are usuallyfermented to develop the flavor, then dried, cleaned, and roasted. The shell is removed to reveal nibs, which are ground tochocolate liquor: unadulterated chocolate in rough form. The liquor can be processed to separate its two components,cocoa solids andcocoa butter, or shaped and sold as unsweetenedbaking chocolate. By adding sugar, sweetened chocolates are produced, which can be sold simply asdark chocolate, or, with the addition ofmilk, can be made intomilk chocolate. Making milk chocolate with cocoa butter and without cocoa solids produceswhite chocolate.
Chocolate is one of the most popular food types and flavors in the world, and many foodstuffs involving chocolate exist, particularlydesserts, includingice creams,cakes,mousse, andcookies. Manycandies are filled with or coated with sweetened chocolate.Chocolate bars, either made of solid chocolate or other ingredients coated in chocolate, are eaten as snacks. Gifts of chocolate molded into different shapes (such as eggs, hearts, and coins) are traditional on certain Western holidays, including Christmas,Easter, Valentine's Day, andHanukkah. Chocolate is also used in cold and hot beverages, such aschocolate milk,hot chocolate andchocolate liqueur.
The cacao tree was first used as a source for food in what is today Ecuador at least 5,300 years ago.Mesoamerican civilizations widely consumed cacao beverages, and in the 16th century, one of these beverages, chocolate, was introduced to Europe. Until the 19th century, chocolate was a drink consumed by societal elite. After then, technological and cocoa production changes led to chocolate becoming a solid, mass-consumed food. In the 21st century, cocoa beans for most chocolate are produced in West African countries, particularlyIvory Coast andGhana, which contribute about 60% of the world's cocoa supply. The presence of child labor, particularly child slavery and trafficking, in cocoa bean production in these countries has received significant media attention.
Chocolate is a Spanishloanword, first recorded in English in 1604,[1][a] and in Spanish in 1579.[2] The word's origins beyond this are contentious.[3] Despite a popular belief thatchocolate derives from theNahuatl wordchocolatl, early texts documenting the Nahuatl word for chocolate drink use a different term,cacahuatl, meaning "cacao water". Several alternatives have therefore been proposed.[4]
In one, chocolate is derived from the hypothetical Nahuatl wordxocoatl, meaning "bitter drink". ScholarsMichael andSophie Coe consider this unlikely, saying that there is no clear reason why the 'sh' sound represented by 'x' would change to 'ch', or why an 'l' would be added.[4] Another theory suggests thatchocolate comes fromchocolatl, meaning 'hot water' in aMayan language. However, there is no evidence of the form 'chocol' being used to mean hot.[4]
Despite the uncertainty about its Nahuatl origin, there is some agreement that chocolate likely derives from theNawat wordchikola:tl.[5] Whetherchikola:tl means 'cacao-beater', referring to whisking cocoa to create foam, is contested, as the meaning ofchico is unknown.[6] According to anthropologist Kathryn Sampeck, chocolate originally referred to one cacao beverage among many, which includedannatto and was made in what is today Guatemala. According to Sampeck, it became the generic word for cacao beveragesc. 1580, when the Izalcos from that area were the most notable producers of cacao.[7]
Evidence for the domestication of thecacao tree exists as early as 5300BP inSouth America, in present-day southeastEcuador by theMayo-Chinchipe culture, before it was introduced toMesoamerica.[8] It is unknown when chocolate was first consumed as opposed to other cacao-based drinks, and there is evidence theOlmecs, the earliest known major Mesoamerican civilization, fermented the sweet pulp surrounding the cacao beans into analcoholic beverage.[9][10]
Chocolate was extremely important to several Mesoamerican societies,[11] and cacao was considered a gift from the gods by theMayans and theAztecs.[12][13] Thecocoa bean was used as a currency across civilizations and was used in ceremonies, as a tribute to leaders and gods and as a medicine.[14][15][16][17][18][19] Chocolate in Mesoamerica was a bitter drink, flavored with additives such asvanilla,earflower andchili, and was capped with a dark brown foam created by pouring the liquid from a height between containers.[20][21][22]
SpanishconquistadorHernán Cortés may have been the first European to encounter chocolate when he observed it in the court ofMoctezuma II in 1520.[23][24] It proved to be an acquired taste,[25][26] and it took until 1585 for the first official recording of a shipment of cocoa beans to Europe.[27] Chocolate was believed to be anaphrodisiac and medicine, and spread across Europe in the 17th century, sweetened, served warm and flavored with familiar spices.[28][29][30] It was initially primarily consumed by the elite, with expensive cocoa supplied by colonial plantations in the Americas.[28] In the 18th century, it was considered southern European,aristocratic andCatholic, and was still produced in a similar way to the way it had been produced by the Aztecs.[31]
Starting in the 18th century, chocolate production was improved. In the 19th century, engine-poweredmilling was developed.[34][35] In 1828,Coenraad Johannes van Houten received a patent for a process makingDutch cocoa. This removed cocoa butter fromchocolate liquor (the product of milling), and permitted large scale production of chocolate.[36] Other developments in the 19th century, including themelanger (a mixing machine), modernmilk chocolate, theconching process to make chocolate smoother and change the flavor meant a worker in 1890 could produce fifty times more chocolate with the same labor than they could before theIndustrial Revolution, and chocolate became a food to be eaten rather than drunk.[37] As production moved from the Americas to Asia and Africa, mass markets in Western nations for chocolate opened up.[38]
In the early 20th century, British chocolate producers includingCadbury andFry's faced controversy over the labor conditions in the Portuguese cacao industry in Africa. A 1908 report by a Cadbury agent described conditions as "de facto slavery."[39] While conditions somewhat improved with a boycott by chocolate makers,[35][40] slave labor among African cacao growers again gained public attention in the early 21st century.[41] In the 20th century, chocolate production further developed, with development of thetempering technique to improve the snap and gloss of chocolate and the addition oflecithin to improve texture and consistency.[42][43]White andcouverture chocolate were developed in the 20th century and thebean-to-bar trade model began.[44][45][46]
Several types of chocolate can be distinguished. Pure, unsweetened chocolate, often called "baking chocolate", contains primarilycocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate, which combines chocolate withsugar.
Eating chocolate
The traditional types of chocolate aredark,milk andwhite. All of them containcocoa butter, which is the ingredient defining the physical properties of chocolate (consistency and melting temperature). Plain (or dark) chocolate, as its name suggests, is a form of chocolate that is similar to purecocoa liquor, although is usually made with a slightly higher proportion of cocoa butter.[47] It is simply defined by its cocoa percentage. In milk chocolate, the non-fat cocoa solids are partly or mostly replaced bymilk solids.[48] In white chocolate, they are all replaced by milk solids, hence its ivory color.[49]
Other forms of eating chocolate exist, these includeraw chocolate (made with unroasted beans) andruby chocolate. An additional popular form of eating chocolate,gianduja, is made by incorporatingnut paste (typically hazelnut) to the chocolate paste.[50]
Chocolate is created from the cocoa bean. A cacao tree with fruit pods in various stages of ripening.
Chocolate is made from cocoa beans, the dried and often fermented seeds of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao), a small, 4–8 m (13–26 ft) tallevergreen tree native to South America. The most commongenotype originated in theAmazon basin, and was gradually transported by humans throughout South and Central America. Early forms of another genotype have also been found in what is now Venezuela.
The scientific name,Theobroma, means "food of the gods".[52] The fruit, called a cocoa pod, is ovoid, 15–30 cm (6–12 in) long and 8–10 cm (3–4 in) wide, ripening yellow to orange, and weighing about 500 g (1.1 lb) when ripe.
Cacao trees are small, understory trees that need rich, well-drained soils. They naturally grow within 20° of either side of the equator because they need about 2000 mm of rainfall a year, and temperatures in the range of 21–32 °C (70–90 °F). Cacao trees cannot tolerate a temperature lower than 15 °C (59 °F).[53] The genome of the cacao tree was sequenced in 2010.[54]
Traditionally, cacao was understood to be divided into three varieties: Criollo, Forastero, and Trinitario. New genetic research has not found a genetic backing for this division, and it has identified eleven genetic clusters.[55]
Processing
Cocoa pods are harvested by cutting them from the tree using amachete, or by knocking them off the tree using a stick. Pods are harvested when they are ripe, as beans in unripe pods have a low cocoa butter content, or low sugar content, impacting the ultimate flavor.
Cocoa beans
Fermenting cocoa beans
The beans, which aresterile within their pods, and their surrounding pulp are removed from the pods and placed in piles or binsto ferment.Micro-organisms, present naturally in the environment, ferment the seeds.Yeasts produceethanol,lactic acid bacteria producelactic acid, andacetic acid bacteria produceacetic acid. The fermentation process, which takes up to seven days, produces several flavor precursors, that eventually provide the chocolate taste.[56]
After fermentation, the beans are dried to prevent mold growth. Where the weather permits it, this is done by spreading the beans out in the sun for five to seven days.[57]
The dried beans are then transported to a chocolate manufacturing facility. The beans are cleaned (removing twigs, stones, and other debris),roasted, and graded. Next, the shell of each bean is removed to extract the nib.[58]
From nibs to chocolate
A chocolate mill (right) grinds and heats cocoa kernels into chocolate liquor. Amelanger (left) mixesmilk,sugar, and other ingredients into the liquor.
Next, the nibs are ground, producingchocolate liquor.[58] The liquor can be further processed into cocoa solids and cocoa butter.[59]
A longitudinal conche
The penultimate process is calledconching. A conche is a container filled with metal beads, which act as grinders. The refined and blended chocolate mass is kept in a liquid state by frictional heat. Before conching, chocolate has an uneven and gritty texture. The conching process produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller than the tongue can detect (typically around 20μm) and reduces rough edges, hence the smooth feel in the mouth. The length of the conching process determines the final smoothness and quality of the chocolate. After the process is complete, the chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to about 45–50 °C (113–122 °F) until final processing.[60]
After conching, chocolate istempered to crystallize a small amount of fat, allowing the remaining fats to crystallize with an overall gloss.[61][62]
After chocolate has been tempered, it is molded into different shapes, includingchocolate bars and chocolate chips.[63]
Storage
Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. Ideal storage temperatures are between 15 and 17 °C (59 and 63 °F), with a relative humidity of less than 50%. If refrigerated or frozen without containment, chocolate can absorb enough moisture to cause a whitish discoloration, the result of fat or sugar crystals rising to the surface. Various types of "blooming" effects can occur if chocolate is stored or served improperly.[64]
Chocolate bloom is caused by storage temperature fluctuating or exceeding 24 °C (75 °F), while sugar bloom is caused by temperature below 15 °C (59 °F) or excess humidity. A fat bloom can be distinguished by touch; it disappears if the surface of affected chocolate is lightly rubbed. Although visually unappealing, chocolate suffering from bloom is safe for consumption and taste is unaffected.[65][66][67] Bloom can be reversed by retempering the chocolate or using it for any use that requires melting the chocolate.[68]
Chocolate is generally stored away from other foods, as it can absorb aromas. To avoid this, chocolate is packed or wrapped, then stored in darkness, in ideal humidity and temperature conditions.[69]
It is unlikely that chocolate consumption in small amounts causeslead poisoning. Some studies have shown that lead may bind to cocoa shells, and contamination may occur during the manufacturing process.[76] One study showed the mean lead level in milk chocolate candy bars was 0.027 μg lead per gram of candy.[76] Another study found that some chocolate purchased at U.S.supermarkets contained up to 0.965 μg per gram, close to the international (voluntary) standard limit for lead in cocoa powder or beans, which is 1 μg of lead per gram.[77]
In 2006, the U.S. FDA lowered by one-fifth the amount of lead permissible in candy, but compliance is only voluntary.[78] Studies concluded that "children, who are big consumers of chocolates, may be at risk of exceeding the daily limit of lead, [as] one 10 g cube of dark chocolate may contain as much as 20% of the daily lead oral limit. Moreover chocolate may not be the only source of lead in their nutrition"[79] and "chocolate might be a significant source ofcadmium and lead ingestion, particularly for children."[80]
According to a 2005 study, the averagelead concentration of cocoa beans is ≤ 0.5 ng/g, which is one of the lowest reported values for a natural food.[76] However, during cultivation and production, chocolate may absorb lead from the environment (such as in atmospheric emissions of now unused leaded gasoline).[76][81]
TheEuropean Food Safety Authority recommended a tolerable weekly intake for cadmium of 2.5micrograms per kg of body weight for Europeans, indicating that consuming chocolate products caused exposure of about 4% among all foods eaten.[82][83] Maximum levels for baby foods and chocolate/cocoa products were established under Commission Regulation (EU) No 488/2014.[84]1986 California Proposition 65 requires a warning label on chocolate products having more than 4.1 mg of cadmium per daily serving of a single product.[85][86][87]
Caffeine
One tablespoonful (5 grams) of dry unsweetenedcocoa powder has 12.1 mg of caffeine[88] and a 25-g single serving of dark chocolate has 22.4 mg of caffeine.[89] This is much less than the amount found in coffee, of which a single 7 oz. (200 ml) serving may contain 80–175 mg of caffeine,[90] though studies have shown psychoactive effects in caffeine doses as low as 9 mg, and a dose as low as 12.5 mg was shown to have effects on cognitive performance.[91]
Theobromine and oxalate
Chocolate may be a factor forheartburn in some people because one of its constituents, theobromine, may affect theesophageal sphincter muscle in a way that permits stomach acids to enter theesophagus.[92]Theobromine poisoning is an overdosage reaction to the bitter alkaloid, which happens more frequently indomestic animals than humans. However, daily intake of 50–100 g cocoa (0.8–1.5 g theobromine) by humans has been associated with sweating, trembling, and severe headache.[93]
A typical 20-kilogram (44 lb) dog will normally experience great intestinal distress after eating less than 240 grams (8.5 oz) of dark chocolate, but will not necessarily experiencebradycardia ortachycardia unless it eats at least a half a kilogram (1.1 lb) of milk chocolate. Dark chocolate has 2 to 5 times more theobromine and thus is more dangerous to dogs. According to theMerck Veterinary Manual, approximately 1.3 grams of baker's chocolate per kilogram of a dog's body weight (0.02 oz/lb) is sufficient to cause symptoms of toxicity. For example, a typical 25-gram (0.88 oz) baker's chocolate bar would be enough to bring about symptoms in a 20-kilogram (44 lb) dog. In the 20th century, there were reports thatmulch made from cocoa bean shells is dangerous to dogs and livestock.[98][99]
Research
Commonly consumed chocolate is high infat andsugar, which are associated with an increased risk forobesity when chocolate is consumed in excess.[100]
Overall evidence is insufficient to determine the relationship between chocolate consumption andacne.[101][102] Various studies point not to chocolate, but to the highglycemic nature of certain foods, like sugar, corn syrup, and other simple carbohydrates, as potential causes of acne,[101][102][103][104] along with other possible dietary factors.[101][105]
Food, including chocolate, is not typically viewed asaddictive.[106] Some people, however, may want or crave chocolate,[106] leading to a self-described term,chocoholic.[106][107]
By somepopular myths, chocolate is considered to be amood enhancer, such as by increasingsex drive or stimulatingcognition, but there is little scientific evidence that such effects are consistent among all chocolate consumers.[108][109] If mood improvement from eating chocolate occurs, there is not enough research to indicate whether it results from the favorable flavor or from thestimulant effects of its constituents, such as caffeine, theobromine, or their parent molecule,methylxanthine.[109] A 2019 review reported that chocolate consumption does not improvedepressive mood.[110]
Reviews support a short-term effect of lowering blood pressure by consuming cocoa products, but there is no evidence of long-term cardiovascular health benefit.[111][112] Chocolate and cocoa are under preliminary research to determine if consumption affects the risk of certaincardiovascular diseases.[113] While daily consumption of cocoa flavanols (minimum dose of 200 mg) appears to benefitplatelet and vascular function,[114] there is no good evidence to indicate an effect onheart attacks orstrokes.[114][115] Research has shown that consuming dark chocolate does not substantially affectblood pressure.[116]
Labeling
Some manufacturers provide the percentage of chocolate in a finished chocolate confection as a label quoting percentage of "cocoa" or "cacao". This refers to the combined percentage of both cocoa solids and cocoa butter in the bar, not just the percentage of cocoa solids.[117] The BelgianAMBAO certification mark indicates that no non-cocoa vegetable fats have been used in making the chocolate.[118][119] A long-standing dispute between Britain on the one hand and Belgium and France over British use of vegetable fats in chocolate ended in 2000 with the adoption of new standards which permitted the use of up to five percent vegetable fats in clearly labelled products.[120]
In the US, the Food and Drug Administration does not allow a product to be referred to as "chocolate" if the product contains any of these ingredients.[123][124]
In the EU a product can be sold as chocolate if it contains up to 5% vegetable oil, and must be labeled as "family milk chocolate" rather than "milk chocolate" if it contains 20% milk.[125]
According to Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, a "chocolate product" is a food product that is sourced from at least one "cocoa product" and contains at least one of the following: "chocolate, bittersweet chocolate, semi-sweet chocolate, dark chocolate, sweet chocolate, milk chocolate, or white chocolate". A "cocoa product" is defined as a food product that is sourced from cocoa beans and contains "cocoa nibs, cocoa liquor, cocoa mass, unsweetened chocolate, bitter chocolate, chocolate liquor, cocoa, low-fat cocoa, cocoa powder, or low-fat cocoa powder".[126]
Chocolate is a steadily growing,US$50 billion-a-year worldwide business as of 2009.[127] As of 2006, Europe accounted for 45% of the world's chocolate revenue,[128] and the US spent $20 billion in 2013.[129]Big Chocolate is a grouping of major international chocolate companies in Europe and the US. In 2004, Mars and Hershey's alone accounted for two-thirds of US production.[130]
Early in the 21st century, roughly two-thirds of the world's cocoa was produced in West Africa, with 43% sourced from Ivory Coast, which commonly used child labor.[131] That year some 50 million people around the world depended on cocoa as a source of livelihood.[132] As of 2007[update] in the UK, most chocolatiers purchase their chocolate from them, to melt, mold and package to their own design.[133]
The two main jobs associated with creating chocolate candy are chocolate makers and chocolatiers. Chocolate makers use harvested cocoa beans and other ingredients to producecouverture chocolate (covering). Chocolatiers use the finished couverture to make chocolate candies (bars andtruffles).
Production costs can be decreased by reducing cocoa solids content or by substituting cocoa butter with another fat. Cocoa growers object to allowing the resulting food to be called "chocolate", due to the risk of lower demand for their crops.[132]
Food conglomeratesNestlé SA andMondelēz both have chocolate brands. Nestlé acquiredRowntree's in 1988 and now markets chocolates under their brand, includingSmarties (a chocolate candy) andKit Kat (a chocolate bar); Kraft Foods through its 1990 acquisition of Jacobs Suchard, now owns Milka and Suchard. Fry's, Trebor Basset and thefair trade brandGreen & Black's also belongs to the group.
The widespread use of children in cocoa production is controversial, not only for the concerns aboutchild labor and exploitation, but also because according to a 2002 estimate, up to 12,000 of the 200,000 children then working in theIvory Coast cocoa industry[135] may have been victims oftrafficking orslavery.[136] Most attention on this subject has focused onWest Africa, which collectively supplies 69 percent of the world's cocoa,[137] and the Ivory Coast in particular, which supplies 35 percent of the world's cocoa.[137] Thirty percent of children under age 15 insub-Saharan Africa are child laborers, mostly in agricultural activities including cocoa farming.[138] Major chocolate producers, such asNestlé, buy cocoa atcommodities exchanges where Ivorian cocoa is mixed with other cocoa.[139]
As of 2017, approximately 2.1 million children in Ghana and Ivory Coast were involved in farming cocoa, carrying heavy loads, clearing forests, and being exposed to pesticides.[140] As of 2018, a 3-yearpilot program – conducted by Nestlé with 26,000 farmers mostly located in Ivory Coast – observed a 51% decrease in the number of children doing hazardous jobs in cocoa farming.[141]
TheUS Department of Labor formed the Child Labor Cocoa Coordinating Group as a public-private partnership with the governments of Ghana and Ivory Coast to address child labor practices in the cocoa industry.[142] The International Cocoa Initiative involving major cocoa manufacturers established the Child Labor Monitoring and Remediation System to monitor thousands of farms in Ghana and Ivory Coast for child labor conditions,[141][140] but the program reached less than 20% of the child laborers.[143]
In April 2018, the Cocoa Barometer report stated: "Not a single company or government is anywhere near reaching the sector-wide objective of the elimination of child labor, and not even near their commitments of a 70% reduction of child labor by 2020". They cited persistent poverty, the absence of schools, increasing world cocoa demand, moreintensive farming of cocoa, and continued exploitation of child labor.[141][144]
In the 2000s, some chocolate producers began to engage infair trade initiatives, to address concerns about the low pay of cocoa laborers in developing countries. Traditionally, Africa and other developing countries received low prices for their exported commodities such as cocoa, which caused poverty. Fairtrade seeks to establish a system of direct trade from developing countries to counteract this system.[145] One solution for fair labor practices is for farmers to become part of anagricultural cooperative. Cooperatives pay farmers a fair price for their cocoa so farmers have enough money for food, clothes, and school fees.[146]
One of the main tenets of fair trade is that farmers receive a fair price, but this does not mean that the larger amount of money paid for fair trade cocoa goes directly to the farmers. The effectiveness of fair trade has been questioned. In a 2014 article,The Economist stated that workers on fair trade farms have a lower standard of living than on similar farms outside the fair trade system[147] based on a study of tea and coffee farmers in Uganda and Ethiopia.[148]
Usage and consumption
A Cadbury chocolate bar
Chocolate is sold inchocolate bars, which come indark chocolate,milk chocolate andwhite chocolate varieties. Some bars that are mostly chocolate have other ingredients blended into the chocolate, such as nuts, raisins, or crisped rice. Chocolate is used as an ingredient in a huge variety of bars, which typically contain various confectionary ingredients (e.g.,nougat,wafers,caramel,nuts) which are coated in chocolate.
The experience of eating chocolate varies with the ingredients used. More sugary chocolates have a flavor that is more immediately apparent, while chocolates with higher cocoa percentages have flavors that take longer to be perceived but stay on the palate for longer. These chocolates with more cocoa are increasingly bitter.[149]
Society and culture
Chocolate is perceived to be different things at different times, including a sweet treat, a luxury product, a consumer good and a mood enhancer,[150] the latter reputation in part driven by marketing.[151] Chocolate is a popular metaphor for the black racial category.[152] It has connotations of transgression and sexuality[153][154] and is gendered as feminine.[155] In the US there is a cultural practice of women consuming chocolate in secret; alone and with other women.[156] Children use chocolate as a euphemism for feces.[157] Chocolate is popularly understood to have "exotic" origins,[158] In China, chocolate is considered "heaty", and avoided in hot weather.[159]
A gift box of chocolates, which is a common gift forValentine's Day
Chocolate is associated with festivals such asEaster, when molded chocolate rabbits and eggs are traditionally given in Christian communities, andHanukkah, when chocolate coins are given in Jewish communities. Chocolatehearts and chocolate in heart-shaped boxes are popular onValentine's Day and are often presented along with flowers and agreeting card[32][160] Boxes of filled chocolates quickly became associated with the holiday.[32] Chocolate is an acceptable gift on other holidays and on occasions such as birthdays. Many confectioners make holiday-specific chocolate candies. ChocolateEaster eggs or rabbits andSanta Claus figures are two examples. Such confections can be solid, hollow, or filled with sweets or fondant.
Some artists have utilized chocolate in their art;Dieter Roth was influential in this beginning with his works in the 1960s casting human and animal figures in chocolate, which used the chocolate's inevitable decay to comment on contemporary attitudes towards the permanence of museum displays. Other works have played on the audience's ability to consume displayed chocolate, encouraged inSonja Alhäuser'sExhibition Basics (2001) and painfully disallowed inEdward Ruscha'sChocolate Room (1970). In the 1980s and 90s, performance artistsKaren Finley andJanine Antoni used chocolate's cultural popular associations of excrement and consumption, and desirability respectively to comment on the status of women in society.[164]
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