| Chinese units of measurement | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 A traditional Chinese scale | |||||||||
| Chinese | 市制 | ||||||||
| Literal meaning | market system | ||||||||
| |||||||||
| Alternative Chinese name | |||||||||
| Chinese | 市用制 | ||||||||
| Literal meaning | market-use system | ||||||||
| |||||||||
Chinese units of measurement, known in Chinese as theshìzhì ("market system"), are the traditionalunits of measurement of theHan Chinese. AlthoughChinese numerals have beendecimal (base-10) since theShang, several Chinese measures usehexadecimal (base-16).[citation needed] Local applications have varied, but theChinese dynasties usually proclaimed standard measurements and recorded their predecessor's systems intheir histories.
In the present day, thePeople's Republic of China maintains some customary units based upon the market units but standardized to round values in themetric system, for example the commonjin orcatty of exactly 500 g. The Chinese name for most metric units is based on that of the closest traditional unit; when confusion might arise, the word "market" (市,shì) is used to specify the traditional unit and "common" or "public" (公,gōng) is used for the metric value.Taiwan, likeKorea, sawits traditional units standardized toJapanese values and their conversion to a metric basis, such as the Taiwaneseping of about 3.306 m2 based on the squareken. TheHong Kong SAR continues to useits traditional units, now legally defined based on a local equation with metric units. For instance, the Hong Kong catty is precisely604.78982 g.
Note: The nameslí (釐 or厘) andfēn (分) for small units are the same for length, area, and mass; however, they refer to different kinds of measurements.
| Part ofa series on the |
| History of science and technology in China |
|---|
 |
According to theLiji, the legendaryYellow Emperor created the first measurement units. TheXiao Erya and theKongzi Jiayu state that length units were derived from the human body. According to theRecords of the Grand Historian, these human body units caused inconsistency, andYu the Great, another legendary figure, unified the length measurements.Rulers with decimal units have been unearthed fromShang dynasty tombs.
In theZhou dynasty, the king conferred nobles with powers of the state and the measurement units began to be inconsistent from state to state. After theWarring States period,Qin Shi Huang unified China, and later standardized measurement units. In theHan dynasty, these measurements were still being used, and were documented systematically in theBook of Han.
Astronomical instruments show little change of the length of chi in the following centuries, since the calendar needed to be consistent. It was not until the introduction of decimal units in theMing dynasty that the traditional system was revised.
On 7 January 1915, theBeiyang government promulgated a measurement law to use not only metric system as the standard but also a set of Chinese-style measurement based directly on theQing dynasty definitions (营造尺库平制).[1]
On 16 February 1929, theNationalist government adopted and promulgatedThe Weights and Measures Act[2] to adopt themetric system as the official standard and to limit the newer Chinese units of measurement (Chinese:市用制;pinyin:shìyòngzhì;lit. 'market-use system') to private sales and trade in Article 11, effective on 1 January 1930. These newer "market" units are based on rounded metric numbers.[3]
These units are still retained for use in theRepublic of China-controlled territories ofKinmen andMatsu nowadays.
TheGovernment of the People's Republic of China continued using the market system along with metric system, as decreed by theState Council of the People's Republic of China on 25 June 1959, but 1catty being 500 grams, would become divided into 10 (new)taels, instead of 16 (old) taels, to be converted fromprovince to province, while exemptingChinese prescription drugs from the conversion to prevent errors.[4]
On 27 February 1984, the State Council of the People's Republic of China decreed the market system to remain acceptable until the end of 1990 and ordered the transition to the national legal measures by that time, butfarmland measures would be exempt from this mandatorymetrication until further investigation and study.[5]
In 1976 theHong KongMetrication Ordinance allowed a gradual replacement of the system in favor of theInternational System of Units (SI) metric system.[6] The Weights and Measures Ordinance defines the metric, Imperial, and Chinese units.[7] As of 2012, all three systems are legal for trade and are in widespread use.
On 24 August 1992,Macau publishedLaw No. 14/92/M to order that Chinese units of measurement similar to those used in Hong Kong,Imperial units, andUnited States customary units would be permissible for five years since the effective date of the Law, 1 January 1993, on the condition of indicating the corresponding SI values, then for three more years thereafter, Chinese, Imperial, and US units would be permissible as secondary to the SI.[8]
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Traditional units of length include thechi (尺),bu (步), andli (里). The precise length of these units, and the ratios between these units, has varied over time. 1bu has consisted of either 5 or 6chi, while 1li has consisted of 300 or 360bu.
| dynasty | chi | bu | li | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| = 5 chi | = 6 chi | = 300 bu | = 360 bu | ||
| Shang (c. 1600 – c. 1045 BC) | 0.1675 | 1.0050 | 301.50 | ||
| 0.1690 | 1.0140 | 304.20 | |||
| Western Zhou (c. 1045–771 BC) | 0.1990 | 1.1940 | 358.20 | ||
| Eastern Zhou (c. 771–256 BC) | 0.2200 | 1.3200 | 396.00 | ||
| 0.2270 | 1.3620 | 408.60 | |||
| 0.2310 | 1.3860 | 415.80 | |||
| Qin (c. 221–206 BC) | 0.2260 | 1.3560 | 406.80[10] 415.80[11][12] | ||
| Han (c. 202 BC–9 AD; 25–220 AD) | 0.2300 | 1.3800 | 414.00 | ||
| 0.2381 | 1.4286 | 415.80[13] 415.80[11][12] 428.58[10] | |||
| Wei -Sui (c. 220–266 AD; 581 to 618 AD) | 0.2550 | 1.5300 | 459.00 | ||
| Tang (c. 618–690 AD; 705–907 AD) | 0.2465 | 1.2325 | 369.75 | 443.70 | |
| 0.2955 | 1.4775 | 443.25 | 531.90 | ||
| Song (c. 960–1279 AD) | 0.2700 | 1.3500 | 405.00 | 486.00 | |
| Northern Song (c. 960–1127 AD) | 0.3080 | 1.5400 | 462.00 | 554.40 | |
| Ming (c. 1368–1644 AD) | 0.3008–0.3190 | 1.5040–1.5950 | 451.20–478.50 | 541.44–574.20 | |
| Qing (c. 1636–1912 AD) | 0.3080–0.3352 | 1.5400–1.6760 | 462.00–503.89 | 554.40–603.46 | |
 | This sectionis missing information about different systems ofchi and derived units: the trio of tailor's (裁衣尺), land-surveyor's (量地尺), and camp-builder's (营造尺) in Ming and Qing; also earlier variations, all found on the corresponding Chinese page. Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on thetalk page.(June 2025) |
Ancient Chinese weight units are mostly defined around thejin or catty. Blanks in the table means that the derived unit is not used in the era.
| Dynasty | shi/dan (石)[a] | jun (鈞) | jin (斤) | liang (兩) | zhu (銖) | qian (錢) | fen (分) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 120 jin | 30 jin | 1 jin | 1⁄16 jin | 1⁄384 jin | 1⁄160 jin | 1⁄1600 jin | ||
| Pre-Qin | 30000 | 7500 | 250 | 15.625 | 0.651[b] | |||
| Qin | 30360 | 7590 | 253 | 15.8 | 0.66 | |||
| Western Han | 29760 | 7440 | 248 | 15.5 | 0.65 | |||
| Eastern Han, Three Kingdoms, Jin dynasty | 26400 | 6600 | 220 | 13.8 | 0.57 | |||
| N&S D | S. Qi | 39600 | 9900 | 330 | 20.625 | 0.859375 | ||
| Liang, Chen | 26400 | 6600 | 220 | 13.8 | 0.57 | |||
| N. Wei & N. Qi | 52800 | 13200 | 440 | 27.5 | 1.1458333333333 | |||
| N. Zhou | 79200 | 19800 | 660 | 41.25 | 1.71875 | |||
| Sui | Small system | 26400 | 6600 | 220 | 13.8 | |||
| Large system | 79320 | 19830 | 661 | 41.3 | ||||
| Tang | 79320 | 19830 | 661 | 41.3 | 4.13 | 0.41 | ||
| Song, Yuan | 75960 | 633 | 40 | 4 | 0.4 | |||
| Ming, Qing | 70800 | 590 | 36.9 | 3.69 | 0.369 | |||
For daytime and nighttime units, the following assume a standardized sundown ofyǒu shí central 1kè (19:12 in 24-hour notation).
| Pinyin | Character | Relative value | Metric/modern value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| miǎo | 秒 | 1⁄100fēn | 144milliseconds | Defined in 1280 |
| fēn | 分 | 1⁄6000 day | 14.4second | |
| kè | 刻 | (minor) 1/6 majorkè | 144 seconds | The majorkè was defined at1⁄100 (rarely1⁄96,1⁄108, or1⁄120) day during most of Chinese history. It became established at1⁄96 day after theQing dynasty, becoming the same as the modernkè. |
| (major)1⁄100 day | 14minutes 24 seconds | |||
| shí/shíchén[14] | 時/時辰 (T) 时/时辰 (S) | 1⁄12 day | 2 hours | Daytime unit |
| diǎn | 點 (T) 点 (S) | 1⁄6gēng | 24 minutes | Nighttime unit |
| gēng | 更 | 1⁄10 day | 2.4 hours | Nighttime units |
| rì /tiān | 日/天 | (basic unit) | 1 day |
According toBook of Han, the fundamental unit of volume was thelun (龠), the volume of 1200 grains of proso millet. 100lun makes agě (合), and 10gě makes ashēng (升, about 1L). For dry measure, thedǒu (斗, "ladle"),hú (斛), andshi ordàn (石, "[basket for] a stone['s weight]") were used for larger amounts.
The amounts of grains were also used as a measure of monthly and annual salary, particularly for official posts in theimperial bureaucracy.
All "metric values" given in the tables are exact unless otherwise specified by the approximation sign '~'. Certain units are also listed atList of Chinese classifiers → Measurement units.
The units in the following tables can be grouped into a few types:
| Pinyin | Character | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| háo | 毫 | 1⁄10000 | 32 μm | 0.00126 in | |
| lí | 釐 (T) or厘 (S) | 1⁄1000 | 0.32 mm | 0.0126 in | |
| fēn | 分 | 1⁄100 | 3.2 mm | 0.126 in | |
| cùn | 寸 | 1⁄10 | 32 mm | 1.26 in | Chinese inch |
| chǐ | 尺 | 1 | 0.32 m | 12.6 in | Chinese foot |
| bù | 步 | 5 | 1.6 m | 5.2 ft | Chinese pace |
| zhàng | 丈 | 10 | 3.2 m | 3.50 yd | Chinese yard |
| yǐn | 引 | 100 | 32 m | 35.0 yd | |
| lǐ | 里 | 1800 | 576 m | 630 yd | Chinese mile, thisli is not the smallli above, which has a differentcharacter andtone |
| Pinyin | Character | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| háo | 毫 | 1⁄10 000 | 33+1⁄3 μm | 0.00131 in | Chinese mil |
| lí | 釐 (T) or厘 (S) | 1⁄1000 | 1⁄3 mm | 0.0131 in | Chinese calibre |
| fēn | 市分 | 1⁄100 | 3+1⁄3 mm | 0.1312 in | Chinese line |
| cùn | 市寸 | 1⁄10 | 3+1⁄3 cm | 1.312 in | Chinese inch |
| chǐ | 市尺 | 1 | 33+1⁄3 cm | 13.12 in | Chinese foot |
| zhàng | 市丈 | 10 | 3+1⁄3 m | 3.645 yd | Chinese yard |
| yǐn | 引 | 100 | 33+1⁄3 m | 36.45 yd | Chinese chain |
| lǐ | 市里 | 1500 | 500 m | 546.8 yd | Chinese mile, thisli is not the smallli above, which has a differentcharacter andtone |
The Chinese word formetre is米mǐ; this can take theChinese standard SI prefixes (for "kilo-", "centi-", etc.). Akilometre, however, may also be called公里gōnglǐ, i.e. a metriclǐ.
In the engineering field, traditional units are rounded up to metric units. For example, the Chinese word絲 (T) or丝 (S)sī is used to express 0.01 mm.
| Pinyin | Character | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| hū | 忽 | 1⁄1000000 | 1 μm | Authorized name:微米 | |
| sī | 絲 (T) or丝 (S) | 1⁄100000 | 10 μm | Authorized name:忽米 | |
| háo | 毫 | 1⁄10000 | 100 μm | Authorized name:絲米 (T) or丝米 (S) | |
| lí | 釐 (T) or厘 (S) | 1⁄1000 | 1 mm | Authorized name:毫米 | |
| fēn | 公分 | 1⁄100 | 10 mm | Authorized name:釐米(T) or厘米(S) | |
| cùn | 公寸 | 1⁄10 | 100 mm | Authorized name:分米 | |
| chǐ | 公尺 | 1 | 1 m | Authorized name:米 | |
| Zhàng | 公丈 | 10 | 10 m | Authorized name:十米 | |
| yǐn | 公引 | 100 | 100 m | Authorized name:百米 | |
| lǐ | 公里 | 1000 | 1000 m | thisli is not the smallli above, which has a differentcharacter andtone |
| Jyutping | Character | English | Portuguese | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| fan1 | 分 | fan | condorim | 1⁄100 | 3.71475 mm | 0.1463 in | |
| cyun3 | 寸 | tsun | ponto | 1⁄10 | 37.1475 mm | 1.463 in | Hong Kong and Macau inch |
| cek3 | 尺 | chek | côvado | 1 | 371.475 mm | 1.219 ft | Hong Kong and Macau foot |
These correspond to the measures listed simply as "China" inThe Measures, Weights, & Moneys of All Nations[15]
| Pinyin | Character | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| háo | 毫 | 1⁄1000 | 0.6144 m2 | 0.7348 sq yd | |
| lí | 釐 (T) or厘 (S) | 1⁄100 | 6.144 m2 | 7.348 sq yd | |
| fēn | 分 | 1⁄10 | 61.44 m2 | 73.48 sq yd | |
| mǔ | 畝 (T) or亩 (S) | 1 | 614.4 m2 | 734.82 sq yd | Chinese acre, or 60 square zhang |
| qǐng | 頃 (T) or顷 (S) | 100 | 6.144 ha | 15.18 acre | Chinesehide |
| Pinyin | Character | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| fāng cùn | 方寸 | 1⁄100 | 10.24 cm2 | 1.587 sq in | square cun |
| fāng chǐ | 方尺 | 1 | 0.1024 m2 | 1.102 sq ft | square chi |
| fāng zhàng | 方丈 | 100 | 10.24 m2 | 110.2 sq ft | square zhang |
| Pinyin | Character | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| háo | 毫 | 1⁄1000 | 2⁄3 m2 | 7.18 sq ft | |
| lí | 釐 (T) or厘 (S) | 1⁄100 | 6+2⁄3 m2 | 7.973 sq yd | |
| fēn | 市分 | 1⁄10 | 66+2⁄3 m2 | 79.73 sq yd | |
| mǔ | 畝 (T) or亩 (S) | 1 | 666+2⁄3 m2 | 797.3 sq yd 0.1647 acre | Chinese acre 6000 square chi per Article 5 of the 1930 Law (六千平方尺定為一畝) 60 square zhang 1/15 of a hectare |
| qǐng | 頃 (T) or顷 (S) | 100 | 6+2⁄3 ha | 16.47 acre | Chinesehide |
| Pinyin | Character | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| fāng cùn | 方寸 | 1⁄100 | 11+1⁄9 cm2 | 1.722 sq in | square cun |
| fāng chǐ | 方尺 | 1 | 1⁄9 m2 | 172.2 sq in 1.196 sq ft | square chi |
| fāng zhàng | 方丈 | 100 | 11+1⁄9 m2 | 119.6 sq ft 13.29 sq yd | square zhang |
Metric and other standard length units can be squared by the addition of the prefix平方píngfāng. For example, a square kilometre is平方公里píngfāng gōnglǐ.
| Jyutping | Portuguese | Character | Relative value | Relation to the Traditional Chinese Units (Macau) | Metric value | Imperial value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| cek3 | côvado | 尺 | 1 | 1⁄25鋪 | 0.1269 m2 | 1.366 sq ft |
| pou3 | 鋪 | 25 | 1⁄4丈 | 3.1725 m2 | 34.15 sq ft 3.794 sq yd | |
| zoeng6 | braça | 丈 | 100 | 1⁄6分 | 12.69 m2 | 136.6 sq ft 15.18 sq yd |
| fan1 | condorim | 分 | 600 | 1⁄10畝 | 76.14 m2 | 91.06 sq yd |
| mau5 | maz | 畝 (T) or亩 (S) | 6000 | None | 761.4 m2 | 910.6 sq yd |
The unitscek3 andzoeng6 are also names of traditional length units. This is an ancient practice with Chinese units of measurement, where area units derived by squaring length units simply take on the same name. Modern derivations would add a prefix 方 or 平方 "square".
These units are used to measure cereal grains, among other things. In imperial times, the physical standard for these was thejialiang.
| Pinyin | Character | Relative value | Metric value | US value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| sháo | 勺 | 1⁄100 | 10.354688 mL | 0.3501 fl oz | 0.3644 fl oz | |
| gě | 合 | 1⁄10 | 103.54688 mL | 3.501 fl oz | 3.644 fl oz | |
| shēng | 升 | 1 | 1.0354688 L | 2.188 pt | 1.822 pt | |
| dǒu | 斗 | 10 | 10.354688 L | 2.735 gal | 2.278 gal | |
| hú | 斛 | 50 | 51.77344 L | 13.68 gal | 11.39 gal | |
| dàn | 石 | 100 | 103.54688 L | 27.35 gal | 22.78 gal |
| Pinyin | Character | Relative value | Metric value | US value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| cuō | 撮 | 1⁄1000 | 1 mL | 0.0338 fl oz | 0.0352 fl oz | millilitre |
| sháo | 勺 | 1⁄100 | 10 mL | 0.3381 fl oz | 0.3520 fl oz | centilitre |
| gě | 合 | 1⁄10 | 100 mL | 3.381 fl oz | 3.520 fl oz | decilitre |
| shēng | 市升 | 1 | 1L | 2.113 pt | 1.760 pt | litre |
| dǒu | 市斗 | 10 | 10 L | 21.13 pt 2.64 gal | 17.60 pt 2.20 gal | decalitre |
| dàn | 市石 | 100 | 100 L | 26.41 gal | 22.0 gal | hectolitre |
In the case of volume, the market and metricshēng coincide, being equal to one litre as shown in the table. TheChinese standard SI prefixes (for "milli-", "centi-", etc.) may be added to this wordshēng.
Units of volume can also be obtained from any standard unit of length using the prefix立方lìfāng ("cubic"), as in立方米lìfāng mǐ for one cubic metre.
| Jyutping | Character | Relation to the Traditional Chinese Units (Macau) | Metric value |
|---|---|---|---|
| cyut3 | 撮 | 1⁄10甘特 | 1.031 L |
| gam1 dak6 | 甘特 | 1⁄10石 | 10.31 L |
| sek6 | 石 | None | 103.1 L |
These units are used to measure the mass of objects. They are also famous for measuring monetary objects such as gold and silver.
| Pinyin | Character | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| háo | 毫 | 1⁄10000 | 3.7301 mg | 0.0001316 oz | |
| lí | 釐 | 1⁄1000 | 37.301 mg | 0.001316 oz | cash |
| fēn | 分 | 1⁄100 | 373.01 mg | 0.01316 oz | candareen |
| qián | 錢 | 1⁄10 | 3.7301 g | 0.1316 oz | mace or Chinesedram |
| liǎng | 兩 | 1 | 37.301 g | 1.316 oz | tael or Chineseounce |
| jīn | 斤 | 16 | 596.816 g | 1.316 lb | catty or Chinesepound |
| Pinyin | Character | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| sī | 絲 | 1⁄1600000 | 312.5 μg | 0.00001102 oz | |
| háo | 毫 | 1⁄160000 | 3.125 mg | 0.0001102 oz | |
| lí | 市釐 | 1⁄16000 | 31.25 mg | 0.001102 oz | cash |
| fēn | 市分 | 1⁄1600 | 312.5 mg | 0.01102 oz | candareen |
| qián | 市錢 | 1⁄160 | 3.125 g | 0.1102 oz | mace or Chinesedram |
| liǎng | 市兩 | 1⁄16 | 31.25 g | 1.102 oz | tael or Chineseounce |
| jīn | 市斤 | 1 | 500 g | 1.102 lb | catty or Chinesepound |
| dàn | 擔 | 100 | 50 kg | 110.2 lb | picul or Chinesehundredweight |
| Pinyin | Character[16] | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| lí | 市厘 | 1⁄10000 | 50 mg | 0.001764 oz | cash |
| fēn | 市分 | 1⁄1000 | 500 mg | 0.01764 oz | candareen |
| qián | 市錢 | 1⁄100 | 5 g | 0.1764 oz | mace or Chinesedram |
| liǎng | 市兩 | 1⁄10 | 50 g | 1.764 oz | tael or Chineseounce |
| jīn | 市斤 | 1 | 500 g | 1.102 lb | catty or Chinesepound formerly 16 liang = 1 jin |
| dàn | 市擔 | 100 | 50 kg | 110.2 lb | picul or Chinesehundredweight |
The Chinese word forgram is克kè; this can take theChinese standard SI prefixes (for "milli-", "deca-", and so on). A kilogram, however, is commonly called公斤gōngjīn, i.e. a metricjīn.
| Jyutping | Character | English | Portuguese | Relative value | Relation to the Traditional Chinese Units (Macau) | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| lei4 | 厘 | li, cash | liz | 1⁄16000 | 1⁄10 condorim | 37.79931 mg | 0.02133 dr | Not defined in Hong Kong. Macanese definition may not be correct when dividing catty. |
| fan1 | 分 | fen, fan, candareen | condorim | 1⁄1600 | 1⁄10 maz | 377.9936375 mg | 0.2133 dr | Macanese definition of 377.9931 mg may not be correct when dividing catty. |
| cin4 | 錢 | qian, tsin, mace | maz | 1⁄160 | 1⁄10 tael | 3.779936375 g | 2.1333 dr | Macanese definition of3.779931 g may not be correct when dividing catty. |
| loeng2 | 兩 | liang, leung, tael | tael | 1⁄16 | 1⁄16 cate | 37.79936375 g | 1.3333 oz | Macanese definition of37.79931 g may not be correct when dividing catty. |
| gan1 | 斤 | jin, kan, catty | cate | 1 | 1⁄100 pico | 604.78982 g | 1.3333 lb | Hong Kong and Macau share the definition. |
| daam3 | 擔 | dan, tam, picul | pico | 100 | None | 60.478982 kg | 133.3333 lb | |
| Ding | 1000 kg |
These are used for trading precious metals such as gold and silver.
| English | Character | Relative value | Metric value | Imperial value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| fen (candareen) troy | 金衡分 | 1⁄100 | 374.29 mg | 0.096 drt | |
| qian (mace) troy | 金衡錢 | 1⁄10 | 3.7429 g | 0.96 drt | |
| liang (tael) troy | 金衡兩 | 1 | 37.429 g | 1.2 ozt |
Modern Chinese time units largely correspond one-to-one to Western units.
| Pinyin | Character | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| miǎo | 秒 | 1 second | |
| fēn | 分 | 1 minute | |
| kè | 刻 | 15 minutes (i.e. one quarter-hour) | Same definition since Qing dynasty |
| shí xiǎoshí | 時 小時 | 1 hour | shí is more technical thanxiǎoshí. Also used isdiǎn for reporting the time-of-day (3diǎn means 3 o'clock) |
| rì /tiān | 日/天 | 1 day |
In addition to the above units, the ancientshíchén is occasionally used with the value of exactly 2 hours.
As there were hundreds of unofficial measures in use, the bibliography is quite vast. The editions of Wu Chenglou's 1937History of Chinese Measurement[17] were the usual standard up to the 1980s or so, but rely mostly on surviving literary accounts. Newer research has put more emphasis on archeological discoveries.[18]Qiu Guangming & Zhang Yanming's 2005 bilingualConcise History of Ancient Chinese Measures and Weights summarizes these findings.[19] A relatively recent and comprehensive bibliography, organized by period studied, has been compiled in 2012 by Cao & al.;[20] for a shorter list, seeWilkinson's year 2000Chinese History.[18]