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Chinese ritual mastery traditions, also referred to asritual teachings (Chinese:法教;pinyin:fǎjiào, sometimes rendered as "Faism"),[1][2]Folk Taoism (民間道教;Mínjiàn Dàojiào), orRed Taoism (mostly in east China and Taiwan), constitute a large group ofChinese orders ofritual officers who operate within theChinese folk religion but outside the institutions of officialTaoism.[3] The "masters of rites", thefashi (法師), are also known in east China ashongtou daoshi (紅頭道士), meaning "redhead" or "redhat"daoshi ("masters of the Tao"), contrasting with thewutou daoshi (烏頭道士), "blackhead" or "blackhat" priests, ofZhengyi Taoism who were historically ordained by theCelestial Master.[3]
Zhengyi Taoism and Faism are often grouped together under the category of "daoshi andfashi ritual traditions" (道法二門道壇). Although the two types of priests have the same roles in Chinese society—in that they can marry and they perform rituals for communities' temples or private homes—Zhengyidaoshi emphasize their Taoist tradition, distinguished from the vernacular tradition of thefashi.[3][4]
Ritual masters can be practitioners oftongji possession, healing, exorcism andjiao rituals[5] (although historically they were excluded from performing thejiao liturgy[3]). The only ones that areshamans (wu) are thefashi of the Lushan school.[5]
The ritual masters (法師fashi) are defined, in opposition to formally ordained Taoist priests, as:[6]
Lay practitioners beyond formal organisations whose lineages are vocational rather than hereditary. They live in the communities or among the families they serve or travel through villages and towns of the country, performing exorcisms, establishing protection, and effecting cures among the populace.
Michael Saso (University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa) distinguishesfashi as "kataphatic" (of filling character) in opposition to Taoists as "kenotic" (of emptying character), and links them to other Sino-Tibetan indigenous religions:[7]
resemble or make use of Taoist texts and visualisation, but are not truly Taoist; i.e., they are not kenotic or emptying in character, but rather kataphatic or filling with lesser spirits and local phenomena of nature. Though scholars and official Chinese sources often catalogue these practices as "Taoist", because they use Taoist texts, symbols and icons, in fact they are called by different names [...] Such practice can (but does not always) include what is called "redhead" or "redhat" (hung-tou) Taoism, the rituals of Yao, Miao, Na-hsi, Moso and Bon Tibetan practices, and the Ngapa or Ngawa rites of Tibetan conjurers in parts of Amdo [...] Though the mantra incantations and mudra hand symbols used by Taoist and popular religious experts are often similar if not identical, the goal and physical effect on the body are different. The Taoist sense of emptying kenosis and peace distinguish the traditional meditative system from the popular rites that summon violent spirits, exorcise evil demons, and attempt to control the elements such as wind, rain, hail, snow, and other forces of nature.Apophasis or "emptying" distinguishes the truly Taoist practice from the kataphatic or "filling" rites of the medium, shaman, oracle and popular priest.
They are known by different names throughout China, other popular ones being "ritual officers" (faguan) as they at times call themselves,[8] or "redhead" Taoist priests (紅頭道士hongtou daoshi). There are also localised names, such as "orthodox lords" (duangong), "altar masters" (zhangtanshi), or "earth masters" (tulaoshi) inGuizhou.[9]
They are also in competition with other orders who perform similar services: monks andtantric masters under the auspices ofBuddhism, andtongji medium.[6]
The difference between ritual masters and Deities' mediums is that instead of being subject to territorial gods like the mediums, the ritual masters can marshal the powers of local Deities.[8]
The Lushan (Mount Lu) school (閭山派;Lǘshān pài, also閭山教;Lǘshān jiào or閭山法教;Lǘshān fǎjiào), also known as Sannai school (三奶教;Sānnǎi jiào; 'transmission of the Three Ladies'), is present inFujian, southernZhejiang andTaiwan.[10] It is very active nowadays, and is related to the worship of the goddessChen Jinggu ("Young Quiet Lady") the Waterside Dame (临水夫人Línshuǐ Fūrén), who is very popular in the same area.[10] It is also related to the cult of Wang Laomu, and competing withMaoshan Taoism.[10]
The tradition shows similarities withYao andZhuang ritual traditions, and has incorporated elements ofTantra, such as the use ofmudra andvajra.[10] Lushanfashi perform rituals as the head of celestial troops while invoking the "Three Ladies" (sannai): Chen Jinggu and her two disciples, Lin Jiuniang and Li Sanniang. Although Lushanfashi are men, in performance they wear the ritual red skirt of Chen Jinggu and a crown or headdress with the words "Three Ladies" painted on it.[10] Lushanfashi also practice ashamanic voyage rite called "crossing the roads and the passes" (guo luguan).[10]
The Pu'an school (普唵派;Pǔǎn pài) is present in west-centralFujian, southernJiangxi and Taiwan.[11] The historical figure of the Buddhist monk Pu’an is worshipped by the practitioners as their "founding master" (zushi).[11] Their texts, rituals and iconography incorporateTantric themes adapted in aTaoist style, and have elements of theZhengyi and Lushan traditions.[11]
The Xujia school (徐甲派;Xújiǎ pài) is another form of ritual masters.[2]
