Chinese philosophy (simplified Chinese: 中国哲学;traditional Chinese: 中國哲學) refers to the philosophical traditions that originated and developed within the historical and cultural context of China. It encompasses systematic reflections on issues such as existence, knowledge, ethics, and politics. Evolving over more than two millennia, Chinese philosophy includes classical traditions such asConfucianism,Daoism, andBuddhism, as well as modern responses to Western philosophical currents. As a cultural form of philosophy, it addresses universal philosophical concerns while also reflecting the specific historical and social conditions of China.[1]
The historical development of Chinese philosophy began during theSpring and Autumn andWarring States periods, a time known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought".[2] Major schools such asConfucianism,Daoism,Mohism, andLegalism emerged with distinct views on human nature, social order, and political authority. During theHan dynasty, Confucianism was established as the officialideology, shaping China's intellectual and political systems for centuries. In subsequent eras, Chinese philosophy integrated influences fromIndian Buddhism, giving rise to new developments such asNeo-Confucianism in theSong andMing dynasties.[3] In the modern period, Chinese thinkers engaged with Western thought, resulting in the emergence ofThree Principles of the People,Chinese Marxism,New Confucianism, and other philosophical movements.[4] Throughout the 20th century, these traditions were reshaped by political upheaval and continue to evolve today.
Chinese philosophy, like other philosophical traditions, engages with fundamental questions inmetaphysics,epistemology,ethics, andpolitical philosophy. Thinkers across various schools explored debates about the nature of human goodness, the source of moral knowledge, and the foundations of social order. Confucianism emphasizes ethical cultivation and political responsibility; Daoism advocates a life in accordance with nature and spontaneity; and Buddhist and Neo-Confucian thinkers developed detailed theories of consciousness and moral practice.[5] Beyond abstract theorizing, Chinese philosophy has played a significant role in shaping Chinese education, governance, and cultural life.[1] In the modern era, Chinese philosophers continue to reinterpret classical ideas while engaging with global philosophical discourse.
Chinese philosophy has exerted significant influence acrossEast Asia. Buddhist thought and Neo-Confucian philosophy spread toKorea,Japan, andVietnam, where they shaped local intellectual and educational traditions.[6] During the 17th and 18th centuries, Confucianism attracted the interest ofEuropean Enlightenment thinkers—often through idealized or inaccurate interpretations—which nonetheless played a role in debates about reason, morality, and secular governance.[7] In the contemporary era, Chinese philosophy is gaining greater visibility in global academia, though challenges remain regarding its integration into broader philosophical discourse beyond cultural or regional frameworks.
The development of Chinese philosophy began in earnest during theSpring and Autumn andWarring States periods (c. 770–221 BCE), an era later known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought" (诸子百家). Thinkers such asConfucius,Mencius,Laozi,Zhuangzi,Mozi,Han Fei, andXunzi laid the foundations for enduring traditions likeConfucianism (儒家),Daoism (道家),Mohism (墨家), andLegalism (法家).[1] These schools addressed questions of ethics, governance, human nature, and the ideal social order, reflecting the intellectual ferment of a politically fragmented age.[5] Legalism as a coherent philosophy disappeared largely due to its relationship with the unpopularauthoritarian rule ofQin Shi Huang. However, many of its ideas and institutions would continue to influence Chinese philosophy throughout the Han dynasty and after.[8]
During theearly Han dynasty, these competing traditions began to merge in practice, but it was not until the reign ofEmperor Wu (141–87 BCE) that Confucianism, through the work ofDong Zhongshu, was officially adopted as state ideology.[8] This institutionalization of amysticized form of Confucianism, infused with cosmological elements fromYin-Yang andFive Elements theories (阴阳五行)—often summarized as "rejecting the Hundred Schools, honoring Confucianism alone" (罢黜百家，独尊儒术)—would shape Chinese education, bureaucracy, and political thought for centuries.[2] Daoism, meanwhile, developed into an organized religion, whileBuddhism (佛教) entered China from India and gained increasing prominence in the centuries that followed.[5]
Buddhism entered China during the Han dynasty and developed into a major philosophical force through the translation efforts of figures likeKumārajīva andXuanzang, who introducedMadhyamaka (中观) andYogācāra (唯识) thought, which profoundly influenced Chinesemetaphysics,epistemology, andsoteriology.[9] In the 5th–7th centuries, Indian monkBodhidharma transmitted the foundations of Chan (Zen) Buddhism (禅宗), which was later transformed byHuineng into a distinctly Chinese tradition emphasizingsudden awakening (顿悟) and direct experience.[10] Over time, Buddhist metaphysics and moral psychology significantly influenced Daoist thought and provoked Confucian responses, laying the groundwork for later syntheses such as Neo-Confucianism.[3]
Beginning in the mid-Tang dynasty, certain scholars with a strong sense of cultural identity initiated efforts to revive Confucianism in response to what they perceived asmoral nihilism in Buddhism.[3]Han Yu was a leading figure in this movement; he criticized Buddhist monastics for being unproductive and for undermining the Confucian ethic of social responsibility. Following two major waves of Buddhist suppression (三武一宗灭佛) underEmperor Wuzong of Tang andEmperor Shizong of Later Zhou, Buddhism's dominance in political and intellectual life declined.[10] During the Song dynasty, Confucian scholar-officials critically absorbed elements of Buddhist and Daoist philosophy and practice, laying the foundations for what becameNeo-Confucianism (宋明理学).Zhang Zai articulated a philosophy of qi (matter, 气) as the material basis of all existence. TheCheng brothers (Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi) emphasized li (principle, 理) and the necessity of internal cultivation to eliminate selfish desires and restore moral nature.[5][3]
Building on these earlier thinkers,Zhu Xi systematized Neo-Confucian thought into a comprehensivemetaphysical andethical framework. He posited li (principle) as the underlying structure of the cosmos, advocated for "investigation of things" (格物) as the path to knowledge, and emphasized the importance of preserving tianli (Heavenly Principle, 天理) by eliminating personal desire.[11] From theYuan dynasty onward, theSchool of Principle (程朱理学) became state orthodoxy and the basis of theimperial examination system throughout theMing andQing dynasties, playing a central role in governance, education, and moral regulation.[2] During the late Ming period, rapid commercial expansion and a flourishing publishing industry gave rise to new currents of thought, many of which challenged Zhu Xi's doctrines.[12] The most influential among them wasWang Yangming'sSchool of Mind (陆王心学), which replaced external investigation with introspective moral awareness (良知) and emphasized the unity of knowledge and action to solve Zhu'sepistemology paradox.[13] Wang's philosophy gained wide support and even political traction, though it never supplanted the School of Principle as the state-sanctioned orthodoxy. Afterthe fall of the Ming, Confucian scholars entered a period of deep reflection. Among them,Wang Fuzhi developed an integrative synthesis drawing from Neo-Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism.[14] Though his influence was limited during his lifetime, his ideas gained renewed interest in the late Qing and would later be reinterpreted as a source of inspiration for modern political ideologies, including aspects ofMaoist thought.[15] The Qing dynasty saw the rise ofevidential scholarship (乾嘉学派) and philology, though official ideology remained conservative, especially during the height of literary inquisition.[4]
Beginning in the late Qing dynasty, Chinese philosophy underwent a profound transformation in response to national crisis, Westernimperialism, and the collapse of the dynastic worldview. Thinkers such asYan Fu introducedliberalism,Social Darwinism, andutilitarian thought through translations of Western works, while reformers likeKang Youwei sought to modernize Confucianism into a national religion (立教改制).[16] During the earlyRepublic of China period, theNew Culture Movement promoted science and democracy while denouncing traditional morality, leading to the marginalization of classical Confucianism. Meanwhile, under the influence ofAbraham Lincoln,Sun Yat-sen developed theThree Principles of the People (三民主义)—nationalism (民族),democracy (民权), and people's livelihood (民生)—as a political-philosophical framework that blended Westernrepublicanism with Chinese moral values.[17] The ideology of the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, 国民党) incorporated this system into its governance strategy, creating a modernist yet culturally rooted foundation for the Chinese state.[16] Following theApril 12 Purge,Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalistright-wing synthesized the Three Principles of the People with Confucianism,authoritarian governance, andnationalist ideology, developing a framework explicitly opposed to both liberalism and Marxism which often referred to asChiangism (蒋介石主义).[18]
Mao Zedong Thought (毛泽东思想) drew fromSovietMarxism–Leninism (马克思列宁主义), particularlyStalinist doctrine (斯大林主义), as well as late Qing Hunanese intellectual traditions and the anti-elitist, anti-capitalist sentiments prevalent inRepublican-era China.[4][15][19] In the struggle for ideological leadership within the Communist Party againstWang Ming, Mao reinterpreted Marxist terminology and developed a distinctive theoretical system centered on concepts like practice (实践), contradiction (矛盾), anddialectical materialism (辩证唯物主义), which gained institutional authority following his political success and became the unquestioned orthodoxy.[20] Followingthe Communist victory in 1949, Maoism became the dominant state ideological system. During the later stages of theCultural Revolution, its discourse became increasingly ritualized and detached from theoretical coherence.[21] Although the Maoist period ended in 1976, Mao Zedong Thought remains one of the guiding ideologies of theChinese Communist Party, and its paradigmatic impact on philosophical discourse, institutional norms, and modes of intellectual expression continues to shape Chinese thought.[22]
Since the 1980s, Chinese philosophy has gradually diversified under conditions ofeconomic reform.New Confucianism, initially developed by scholars inTaiwan andHong Kong such asMou Zongsan andTang Junyi, was reintroduced into the mainland and engaged in dialogue with Westernhumanism.[23] At the same time,Marxist humanism,existentialism,phenomenology,Frankfurt School,Rawlsianism, andanalytic philosophy gained influence in academic circles.[24] State ideology shifted toward "Socialism with Chinese Characteristics" (中国特色社会主义), emphasizing pragmatism and national rejuvenation while selectively drawing on traditional values. Though political constraints remain, contemporary philosophers have attempted to develop original frameworks addressing global ethics, language, and subjectivity. Nevertheless, the legacy of revolutionary philosophy and ongoing state involvement in ideology continue to shape the structure and limits of philosophical inquiry in China.[4]
In addition to the Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist traditions rooted in Han cultural regions, other philosophical systems developed across China's multiethnic landscape.Tibetan Buddhism (藏传佛教), which took shape from the Yuan dynasty onward, formed a systematic tradition incorporatingMadhyamaka thought and Buddhist logic (pramāṇa, 因明), particularly through theGelug school (格鲁学派) founded byTsongkhapa. This tradition had a major influence onMongolian and Manchu political institutions and continues to play a central role in Tibetan intellectual life.[25]
Beginning in the 17th century, Catholic missionaries, especially Jesuits likeMatteo Ricci andJohann Adam Schall von Bell, introducedAristotelian andThomistic philosophy to China. They translated Western philosophical concepts into Confucian terminology and attempted to establish a dialogue between Catholic theology and Chinese ethical traditions. Although controversial, these efforts created an enduring legacy of cross-cultural exchange that shaped the development of modern Chinese intellectual history.[13]
Islamic philosophy in China—often referred to as Islamic Heavenly Studies (天方理学)—flourished particularly during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Muslim scholars such asLiu Zhi andMa Zhu synthesized Islamic theology with Confucian ethics, developing distinctive metaphysical and ethical frameworks known as "Hui Confucianism" (回儒). Their works reflected efforts to reconcile Islamic and Chinese thought within a shared intellectual world.[13]
EarlyShang dynasty thought was based on cycles like the10 stems and12 earthly branches. This notion stems from what the people of the Shang dynasty could observe around them: day and night cycles, the seasons progressed again and again, and even the moon waxed and waned until it waxed again. Thus, this notion, which remained relevant throughoutChinese history, reflects the order of nature. In juxtaposition, it also marks a fundamental distinction fromwestern philosophy, in which the dominant view of time is a linear progression. During the Shang,Ancestor worship was present and universally recognized.[citation needed]
When the Shang were overthrown by theZhou a new political, religious and philosophical concept was introduced called theMandate of Heaven. This mandate was said to be taken when rulers became unworthy of their position and provided a justification for Zhou rule it is said that theDuke of Zhou made the early solar terms by measuring with agnomon that was added to make the completesolar terms. He is also said to have usedtry squares and wrote theZhoubi Suanjing[26] with his astrologer. Several early beliefs might be found in theGuicang and perhaps the earliest Chinese book, the small calendar of the Xia in Da Dai Liji, though debated to exist the Xia dynasty is said to be its origin.[27]
Around 500 BCE, after the Zhou state weakened and China moved into theSpring and Autumn period, the classic period of Chinese philosophy began. This is known as theHundred Schools of Thought (諸子百家;zhūzǐ bǎijiā; "various scholars, hundred schools"). This period is considered the golden age of Chinese philosophy. Of the many schools founded at this time and during the subsequentWarring States period, the four most influential ones wereConfucianism,Daoism (often spelled "Taoism"),Mohism andLegalism.[8][28]
Confucianism is a philosophical school developed from the teachings of Confucius collected and written by his disciples after his death inThe Analects, and in theWarring States period,Mencius inThe Mencius andXunzi inThe Xunzi. It is a system ofmoral,social,political, andreligious thought that has had tremendous influence on Chinese history, thought, and culture down to the 20th century. Some Westerners have considered it to have been the "state religion" ofimperial China because of its lasting influence on Asian culture. Its influence also spread to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and many other Asian countries.[citation needed]
Confucianism reached its peak of influence during theTang andSong dynasties under a rebranded Confucianism calledNeo-Confucianism. Confucius expanded on the already present ideas of Chinese religion and culture to reflect the time period and environment of political chaos during theWarring States period. Because Confucius embedded the Chinese culture so heavily into his philosophy it was able to resonate with the people of China. However, the relationship between Confucianism and contemporary Chinese society is continuously transforming, reflecting the evolving cultural, political, and social landscape of modern China.[29]
The major Confucian concepts includefilial piety, loyalty (忠;zhōng),li (ritual),ren (humanity or humaneness), therectification of names (i.e., to ensure everything is what its name implies it should be),.[30] Confucius taught both positive and negative versions of theGolden Rule. The conceptsyin and yang represent two opposing forces that are permanently in conflict with each other, leading to perpetual contradiction and change. The Confucian idea of "Rid of the two ends, take the middle" is a Chinese equivalent of the idea of "thesis, antithesis, and synthesis", often attributed toHegel, which is a way of reconciling opposites, arriving at some middle ground combining the best of both.[citation needed]
Confucius heavily emphasized the idea of microcosms in society (subunits of family and community) success's were the foundations for a successful state or country. Confucius believed in the use of education to further knowledge the people in ethics, societal behavior, and reverence in other humans. With the combination of education, successful family, and his ethical teachings he believed he could govern a well established society in China.[citation needed]
Taoism arose as a philosophy and later also developed into a religion based on the texts theTao Te Ching (ascribed toLaozi) and theZhuangzi (partly ascribed toZhuang Zhou). The wordTao (道; also transliterated asDao) literally means 'path' or 'way'. However, in Taoism it refers more often to a meta-physical force that encompasses the entire universe but which cannot be described nor felt.
All major Chinese philosophical schools have investigated the correctWay to go about a moral life, but in Taoism it takes on the most abstract meanings, leading this school to be named after it. It advocated nonaction (wu wei), the strength of softness, spontaneity, and relativism. Although it serves as a rival to Confucianism, a school of active morality, this rivalry is compromised and given perspective by the idiom "practice Confucianism on the outside, Taoism on the inside."
Most of Taoism's focus is on the notion that human attempts to make the world better actually make the world worse. Therefore, it is better to strive for harmony, minimising potentially harmful interference with nature or in human affairs.[31]
PhilosopherHan Fei synthesized together earlier the methods of his predecessors, which famous historianSima Tan posthumously termed Legalism. With an essential principle like "when the epoch changed, the ways changed", late pre-Han dynasty reformers emphasized rule by law.
In Han Fei's philosophy, a ruler should govern his subjects by the following trinity:
Fa (法;fǎ): law or principle.
Shu (術;shù): method, tactic, art, or statecraft.
Shi (勢;shì): legitimacy, power, or charisma.
What has been termed by some as the intrastate Realpolitik of the Warring States period was highly progressive, and extremely critical of the Confucian and Mohist schools. But that of theQin dynasty would be blamed for creating atotalitarian society, thereby experiencing decline. Its main motto is: "Set clear strict laws, or deliver harsh punishment". In Han Fei's philosophy the ruler possessed authority regarding reward and penalty, enacted through law. Shang Yang and Han Fei promoted absolute adherence to the law, regardless of the circumstances or the person. Ministers were only to be rewarded if their words were accurate to the results of their proposals. Legalism, in accordance with Shang Yang's interpretation, could encourage the state to be amilitaristicautarky.
TheSchool of Naturalists or the School of Yin-yang (Chinese:陰陽家;pinyin:Yīnyángjiā;Wade–Giles:Yin-yang-chia;lit. 'School of Yin-Yang') was aWarring States era philosophy that synthesized the concepts ofyin-yang and thewuxing;Zou Yan is considered the founder of this school.[32] His theory attempted to explain the universe in terms of basic forces in nature: the complementary agents of yin (dark, cold, female, negative) and yang (light, hot, male, positive) and the Five Elements or Five Phases (water, fire, wood, metal, and earth).
In its early days, this theory was most strongly associated with the states ofYan andQi. In later periods, these epistemological theories came to hold significance in both philosophy and popular belief. This school was absorbed into Taoism's alchemic and magical dimensions as well as into the Chinese medical framework. The earliest surviving recordings of this are in theMawangdui texts andHuangdi Neijing.
Mohism (Moism), founded byMozi, promotes universal love with the aim of mutual benefit. Everyone must love each other equally and impartially to avoid conflict and war. Mozi was strongly against Confucian ritual, instead emphasizingpragmatic survival through farming,fortification, andstatecraft. Tradition is inconsistent, and human beings need an extra-traditional guide to identify which traditions are acceptable. The moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviors that maximize general benefit. As motivation for his theory, Mozi brought in theWill of Heaven, but rather than being religious his philosophy parallelsutilitarianism.
The logicians (School of Names) were concerned with logic, paradoxes, names and actuality (similar to Confucian rectification of names). The logicianHui Shi was a friendly rival toZhuangzi, arguing against Taoism in a light-hearted and humorous manner. Another logician,Gongsun Long, originated the famousWhen a White Horse is Not a Horse dialogue.
Agriculturalism was an earlyagrarian social and political philosophy that advocated peasantutopian communalism andegalitarianism.[33] The philosophy is founded on the notion that human society originates with the development ofagriculture, and societies are based upon "people's natural propensity to farm."[34]
The Agriculturalists believed that the ideal government, modeled after the semi-mythical governance ofShennong, is led by a benevolent king, one who works alongside the people in tilling the fields. The Agriculturalist king is not paid by the government through its treasuries; his livelihood is derived from the profits he earns working in the fields, not his leadership.[35] Unlike the Confucians, the Agriculturalists did not believe in thedivision of labour, arguing instead that the economic policies of a country need to be based upon an egalitarianself sufficiency. The Agriculturalists supported thefixing of prices, in which all similar goods, regardless of differences in quality and demand, are set at exactly the same, unchanging price.[35]
The short founderQin dynasty, where Legalism was the official philosophy,quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools. Legalism remained influential during the earlyHan dynasty under the Taoist-Realist ideologyHuang-Lao untilEmperor Wu of Han adopted Confucianism as official doctrine. Confucianism and Taoism became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the introduction ofBuddhism.
Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han dynasty, whose greatest thinker wasDong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements. He also was a promoter of the New Text school, which considered Confucius as a divine figure and a spiritual ruler of China, who foresaw and started the evolution of the world towards the Universal Peace.
In contrast, there was an Old Text school that advocated the use of Confucian works written in ancient language (from this comes the denominationOld Text) that were so much more reliable. In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal
The 3rd and 4th centuries saw the rise of theXuanxue (mysterious learning), also calledNeo-Taoism.
Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until theNorthern and Southern,Sui andTang dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement. At the beginning, it was considered a sort of Taoist sect.Mahayana Buddhism was far more successful in China than its rivalHinayana, and both Indian schools and local Chinese sects arose from the 5th century. Two chiefly important monk philosophers wereSengzhao andDaosheng. But probably the most influential and original of these schools was theChan sect, which had an even stronger impact in Japan as theZen sect.
In the mid-Tang Buddhism reached its peak, and reportedly there were 4,600 monasteries, 40,000 hermitages and 260,500 monks and nuns. The power of the Buddhist clergy was so great and the wealth of the monasteries so impressive, that it instigated criticism from Confucian scholars, who considered Buddhism as a foreign religion. In 845 EmperorWuzong ordered theGreat Anti-Buddhist Persecution, confiscating the riches and returning monks and nuns to lay life. From then on, Buddhism lost much of its influence.
Xuanxue was a philosophical school that combined elements ofConfucianism andTaoism to reinterpret theI Ching,Tao Te Ching, andZhuangzi. The most important philosophers of this movement wereWang Bi,Xiang Xiu andGuo Xiang. The main question of this school was whether Being came before Not-Being (in Chinese,ming andwuming). A peculiar feature of these Taoist thinkers, like theSeven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, was the concept offeng liu (lit. wind and flow), a sort of romantic spirit which encouraged following the natural and instinctive impulse.
Buddhism until the 4th century AD had little impact on China but in the 4th century its teachings hybridized with those of Taoism.[36] Buddhism brought to China the idea of many hells, where sinners went, but the deceased sinners souls could be saved by pious acts.[36] Since Chinese traditional thought focused more on ethics rather thanmetaphysics, the merging of Buddhist and Taoist concepts developed several schools distinct from the originating Indian schools.
The most prominent examples with philosophical merit areSanlun,Tiantai,Huayan, andChan (a.k.a. Zen). They investigateconsciousness, levels of truth, whether reality is ultimately empty, and howenlightenment is to be achieved. Buddhism has a spiritual aspect that complements the action ofNeo-Confucianism, with prominent Neo-Confucians advocating certain forms of meditation.
The School of Principle gained supremacy during the Song dynasty with the philosophical system elaborated byZhu Xi, which became mainstream and officially adopted by the government for the imperial examinations under theYuan dynasty.The School of Mind was developed byLu Jiuyuan, Zhu Xi's main rival, but was soon forgotten. Only during theMing dynasty was the School of Mind revived byWang Shouren, whose influence is equal to that of Zhu Xi. This school was particularly important in Japan.
During theQing dynasty many philosophers objected against Neo-Confucianism and there was a return to the Han dynasty Confucianism, and also the reprise of the controversy between Old Text and New Text. In this period also started the penetration of Western culture, but most Chinese thought that the Westerners were maybe more advanced in technology and warfare, but that China had primacy in moral and intellectual fields.
Chinese culture was highly influential on the traditions of other East Asian states, and its philosophy directly influencedKorean philosophy,Vietnamese philosophy andJapanese philosophy.[37] During later Chinese dynasties like theMing dynasty (1368–1644), as well as in the KoreanJoseon dynasty (1392–1897), a resurgentNeo-Confucianism led by thinkers such asWang Yangming (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought and was promoted by the imperial state. In Japan, theTokugawa shogunate (1603–1867) was also strongly influenced by Confucian philosophy.[38]
Despite Confucianism losing popularity to Taoism and Buddhism,Neo-Confucianism combined those ideas into a moremetaphysical framework. Its concepts includeli (principle, akin toPlato'sforms),qi (vital or material force),taiji (the Great Ultimate), andxin (mind).Song dynasty philosopherZhou Dunyi (1017–1073) is commonly seen as the first true "pioneer" of Neo-Confucianism, using Daoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy.[39]
Neo-Confucianism developed both as a renaissance of traditional Confucian ideas, and as a reaction to the ideas of Buddhism and religious Daoism. Although the Neo-Confucianists denounced Buddhist metaphysics, Neo-Confucianism did borrow Daoist and Buddhist terminology and concepts.[40]Neo-Confucianist philosophers likeZhu Xi andWang Yangming are seen as the most important figures of Neo-Confucianism.
During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy had also begun to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. Chinese philosophy never developed the concept ofhuman rights, so that classical Chinese lacked words for them. In 1864,W.A.P. Martin had to invent the wordquanli (Chinese:權利) to translate the Western concept of "rights" in the process of translatingHenry Wheaton'sElements of International Law into classical Chinese.[41]
During theXi Jinping general secretaryship, the People's Republic of China has promoted a revival in Chinese philosophy. In 2024,East China Normal University established the Chinese Zhuzi Research Institute to promote the study of Chinese philosophies.[43]
The debate over whether thethought of ancient Chinese masters should be called philosophy has been discussed since the introduction of this academic discipline into China.[46] SeeLegitimacy of Chinese philosophy for details.
太極TheTai-chi (Great Heavenly Axis) forms a unity of the two complementary polarities,Yin and Yang. The wordYin originally referred to a hillside facing away from the sun. Philosophically, it stands the dark, passive, feminine principle; whereasYang (the hillside facing the sun) stands for the bright, active, masculine principle. Yin and Yang are not antagonistic, they alternate in inverse proportion to one another—like the rise and fall of awave and are known by their comparison.[47]
Among the commonalities of Chinese philosophies are:
The tendency not to view man as separate from nature.
Questions about the nature and existence of amonotheistic deity, which have profoundly influenced Western philosophy, have not been important in Chinese philosophies or a source of great conflict inChinese traditional religion.
The belief that the purpose of philosophy is primarily to serve as an ethical and practical guide.
The political focus: most scholars of theHundred Schools were trying to convince the ruler to behave in the way they defended.
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