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Chinese culture (simplified Chinese:中华文化;traditional Chinese:中華文化;pinyin:Zhōnghuá wénhuà) is one of theworld's earliest cultures, said to originate five thousand years ago. The culture prevails across a large geographical region inEast Asia called theSinosphere as a whole and is extremely diverse, with customs and traditions varying greatly between regions. The terms 'China' and the geographical landmass of 'China' have shifted across the centuries, before the name 'China' became commonplace. Chinese civilization is historically considered a dominant culture of East Asia.[1] Chinese culture exerted profound influence on the philosophy, customs, politics, and traditions ofAsia.[2]Chinese characters,ceramics,architecture,music,dance,literature,martial arts,cuisine,arts,philosophy, etiquette,religion,politics, andhistory have had global influence, while itstraditions andfestivals are celebrated, instilled, and practiced by people around the world.[3]
As early as the Zhou dynasty, the Chinese government divided Chinese people intofour classes:gentry,farmer,craftsman, andmerchant. Gentry and farmers constituted the two major classes, while merchant and craftsmen were collected into the two minor. Theoretically, except for the position of the Emperor, nothing was hereditary.[citation needed]
China's majority ethnic group, theHan Chinese, are anEast Asianethnic group andnation. They constitute approximately 92% of the population of China, 95% ofTaiwan (Han Taiwanese),[4] 76% ofSingapore,[5] 23% ofMalaysia, and about 17% of theglobal population, making them theworld's largest ethnic group, numbering over 1.3 billion people.
In modern China, there are 56 officially labelledethnic groups.[6] Throughout Chinese history, many non-Han foreigners like the Indo-Iranians became Han Chinese through assimilation, other groups retained their distinct ethnic identities, or faded away.[7] At the same time, the Han Chinese majority has maintained distinct linguistic and regional cultural traditions throughout the ages. The termZhonghua minzu (simplified Chinese:中华民族;traditional Chinese:中華民族) has been used to describe the notion ofChinese nationalism in general. Much of the traditional identity within the community has to do with distinguishing thefamily name.
China is one of the world's four "cradles of ancient civilization" and has maintained unique continuity. The Chinese people, remarks one scholar, in the spirit of "continuous self-renewal," "self-discipline and social commitment," "inclusiveness to diversity," and "realism and adaptation to changes," created cultural traditions of abundant content, sophisticated structure, and various forms.[8]
During the 361 years of civil war after theHan dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), there was a partial restoration offeudalism when wealthy and powerful families emerged with large amounts of land and huge numbers of semi-serfs. They dominated important civilian and military positions of the government, making the positions available to members of their own families and clans.[9][10] TheTang dynasty extended theimperial examination system as an attempt to eradicate this feudalism.[11] Traditional Chinese culture covers large geographical territories, where each region is usually divided into distinct sub-cultures. Each region is often represented by three ancestral items. For example,Guangdong is represented bychenpi,aged ginger andhay.[12][13] The ancient city of Lin'an (Hangzhou), is represented bytea leaf,bamboo shoottrunk, andhickory nut.[14] Such distinctions give rise to the old Chinese proverb: "十里不同風, 百里不同俗/十里不同風": "praxis vary within tenli, customs vary within a hundredli". The 31provincial-level divisions of thePeople's Republic of China are grouped by its former administrative areas from 1949 to 1980, and are now known as traditional regions.
Since theThree Sovereigns and Five Emperors period, some form ofChinese monarch has been the main ruler above all. Different periods of history have different names for the various positions within society. Conceptually each imperial or feudal period is similar, with the government and military officials ranking high in thehierarchy, and the rest of the population under regularChinese law.[15] From the lateZhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE) onwards, traditional Chinese society was organized into a hierarchic system of socio-economic classes known as thefour occupations.
However, this system did not cover all social groups and the distinctions between the groups became blurred after thecommercialization of Chinese culture in theSong dynasty (960–1279 CE).Ancient Chinese education also has a long history; ever since theSui dynasty (581–618 CE), educated candidates prepared for the imperial examinations and exam graduates were drafted into government asscholar-bureaucrats. This led to the creation of ameritocracy, although success was available only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known asjinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position. A major mythological structure developed around the topic of themythology of the imperial exams. Trades and crafts were usually taught by ashifu. The female historianBan Zhao wrote theLessons for Women in theHan dynasty and outlined thefour virtues women must abide by, while scholars such asZhu Xi andCheng Yi would expand on this.Chinese marriage andTaoist sexual practices are some of the rituals and customs found in society.[citation needed]
With the rise of European economic and military power beginning in the mid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained adherents in China. Some of these would-be reformers totally rejected China's cultural legacy, while others sought to combine the strengths of Chinese and European cultures. In essence, the history of 20th-century China is one of experimentation with new systems of social, political, and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse.[citation needed]
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Most spiritual practices are derived fromChinese Buddhism,Taoism andConfucianism. The relative influence of each school of practice is a subject of debate and other practices, such asNeo-Confucianism,Buddhism and others, have been introduced.[citation needed]Reincarnation and otherrebirth concepts are a reminder of the connection between real-life and the after-life. In Chinesebusiness culture, the concept ofguanxi, indicating the primacy of relations over rules, has been well documented.[16] While manydeities are part of the tradition, some of the most recognized holy figures includeGuan Yin, theJade Emperor andBuddha.
Chinese Buddhism has shaped some Chineseart,literature andphilosophy. The translation of a large body of foreign Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and the inclusion of these translations, together with works composed in China, into a printed canon had far-reaching implications for the dissemination ofBuddhism throughout China. Chinese Buddhism is also marked by the interaction betweenIndian religions,Chinese folk religion, andTaoism.
During the Xia and Shang dynasties, Chinese religion was oriented to worshipping the supreme godShang Di, with the king and diviners acting as priests and usingoracle bones. The Zhou dynasty oriented religion to worshipping the broader concept of heaven. A large part of Chinese culture is based in the belief in a spiritual world. Countlessmethods of divination have helped answer questions, even serving as an alternative to medicine.Folklores have helped fill the gap between things that cannot be explained. There is often a blurred line between myth, religion and unexplained phenomenon. Many of the stories have since evolved intotraditional Chinese holidays. Other concepts have extended beyond mythology into spiritual symbols such asDoor god and theImperial guardian lions. Along with the belief in the divine beings, there is belief in evil beings. Practices such as Taoistexorcism fightingmogwai andjiangshi with peachwood swords are just some of the concepts passed down from generations. A fewChinese fortune telling rituals are still in use today after thousands of years of refinement.
Taoism, a religious or philosophical tradition ofChinese origin, emphasizes living in harmony with theTao (道, literally "Way",also romanized asDao). TheTao is a fundamental idea in mostChinese philosophical schools; in Taoism, however, it denotes the principle that is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists.[17][18] Taoism differs fromConfucianism by not emphasizing rigid rituals and social order.[17] Taoist ethics vary depending on the particular school, but in general tend to emphasizewu wei (effortless action), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity, and theThree Treasures: 慈 "compassion", 儉/俭 "frugality", and 谦 "humility". The roots of Taoism can be traced back to at least the 4th century BCE. Early Taoism drew its cosmological notions from theSchool of Yinyang (Naturalists), and was deeply influenced by one of China's oldest texts, theYijing, which expounds a philosophical system of human behavior in accordance with the alternating cycles of nature. The "Legalist"Shen Buhai may also have been a major influence, expounding arealpolitik of wu wei.[18][19][20] TheTao Te Ching, a compact book containing teachings attributed toLaozi (Chinese:老子;pinyin:Lǎozǐ;Wade–Giles:Lao Tzu), is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the laterwritings of Zhuangzi.
Confucianism, also known as Ruism, was the official philosophy throughout most ofImperial China's history, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion forentry into the imperial bureaucracy. A number of moreauthoritarian strains of thought have also been influential, such asLegalism.[21]There was often conflict between the philosophies, e.g. theSong dynastyNeo-Confucians believed Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and aculture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number ofNew Confucians (not to be confused with Neo-Confucianism) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".[22]
Confucianism is described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or simply a way of life.[23] Confucianism developed from what was later called theHundred Schools of Thought from the teachings of theChinese philosopherConfucius (551–479 BCE), who considered himself a retransmitter of the values of theZhou dynasty golden age of several centuries before.[24] In theHan dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), Confucian approaches edged out the "proto-Taoist"Huang-Lao, as the official ideology, while the emperors mixed both with the realist techniques of Legalism.
The Hundred Schools of Thought were philosophies and schools that flourished from the 6th century to 221 BC, during theSpring and Autumn period and theWarring States period of ancient China.[25] While this period was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it was an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China.[26] It came to be known as the Golden Age ofChinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and could be freely discussed. This phenomenon has been called theContention of a Hundred Schools of Thought (百家爭鳴/百家争鸣;bǎijiā zhēngmíng;pai-chia cheng-ming; "hundred schools contend"). The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly influencedlifestyles andsocial consciousness up to the present day in China and across East Asia. Theintellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy. This period ended with the rise of the imperialQin dynasty and the subsequentpurge of dissent. A traditional source for this period is theShiji, orRecords of the Grand Historian bySima Qian. The autobiographical section of theShiji, the "Taishigong Zixu" (太史公自序), refers to the schools of thought described below.
Mohism was anancient Chinese philosophy oflogic,rational thought andscience developed by theacademicscholars who studied under the ancient Chinese philosopherMozi (c. 470 BC–c. 391 BC). The philosophy is embodied in an eponymous book: theMozi. Another group is the School of the Military (兵家;Bingjia) that studied warfare and strategy;Sunzi andSun Bin were influential leaders. The School of Naturalists was aWarring States era philosophy that synthesized the concepts ofyin-yang and theFive Elements;Zou Yan is considered the founder of this school.[27] His theory attempted to explain the universe in terms of basic forces in nature: the complementary agents of yin (dark, cold, female, negative) and yang (light, hot, male, positive) and the Five Elements or Five Phases (water, fire, wood, metal, and earth).
The ancient written standard wasClassical Chinese. It was used for thousands of years, but was mostly used by scholars and intellectuals in the upper class society called "shi da fu (士大夫)". It was difficult, but possible, for ordinary people to enter this class by passing written exams. Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous artists became prized possessions.Chinese literature has a long past; the earliest classic work in Chinese, theI Ching or "Book of Changes", dates to around 1000 BC. A flourishing of philosophy during theWarring States period produced such noteworthy works as Confucius'sAnalects andLaozi'sTao Te Ching. (See also:Chinese classics) Dynastic histories were often written, beginning withSima Qian's seminalRecords of the Grand Historian, written from 109 BC to 91 BC. The Tang dynasty witnessed apoetic flowering, while theFour Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature were written during the Ming and Qing dynasties.Printmaking in the form ofmovable type was developed during theSong dynasty. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printed and handwritten form. Members of royalty frequently participated in these discussions.
Chinese philosophers, writers and poets were highly respected and played key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities.
At the start of the 20th century, most of the population were stillilliterate, and the many languages spoken (Mandarin,Wu,Yue (Cantonese),Min Nan (Ban-lam-gu),Jin,Xiang,Hakka,Gan,Hui,Ping etc.) in different regions prevented spoken communication with people from other areas. However, the written language made communication possible, such as passing on official orders and documents throughout the entire region of China. Reformers set out to establish a national language, settling on the Beijing-basedMandarin as the spoken form. After theMay 4th Movement, Classical Chinese was quickly replaced bywritten vernacular Chinese, modeled after the vocabulary and grammar of the standard spoken language.[29]
Chinese calligraphy is a form of writing (calligraphy), or, the artistic expression of human language in a tangible form. There are some general standardizations of the variousstyles of calligraphy in this tradition. Chinese calligraphy andink and wash painting are closely related: they are accomplished using similar tools and techniques, and have a long history of shared artistry. Distinguishing features of Chinese painting and calligraphy include an emphasis on motion charged with dynamic life. According to Stanley-Baker, "Calligraphy is sheer life experienced through energy in motion that is registered as traces on silk or paper, with time and rhythm in shifting space its main ingredients."[30] Calligraphy has also led to the development of many forms of art in China, includingseal carving, ornate paperweights, andinkstones.
In China, calligraphy is referred to asShūfǎ (書法/书法), literally "the way/method/law of writing".[31] In Japan it is referred to asShodō (書道/书道), literally "the way/principle of writing"; and in Korea asSeoye (서예; 書藝) literally "the skill/criterion[32] of writing". Chinese calligraphy is normally regarded as one of the "arts" (Chinese 藝術/艺术pinyin:yìshù) in the countries where it is practised. Chinese calligraphy focuses not only on methods of writing but also on cultivating one's character (人品)[33] and taught as a discipline (書法;pinyin:shūfǎ, "the rules of writingHan characters"[34]).
TheZhou dynasty is often regarded as the touchstone of Chinese cultural development. Concepts covered in theChinese classic texts includepoetry,astrology,astronomy, thecalendar, andconstellations. Some of the most important early texts include theI Ching and theShujing within theFour Books and Five Classics. Many Chinese concepts such asYin and Yang,Qi,Four Pillars of Destiny in relation to heaven and earth were theorized in the pre-imperial periods. By the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese culture had embarked on a new era withwritten vernacular Chinese for the common citizens.Hu Shih andLu Xun were considered pioneers in modern literature at that time. After the founding of thePeople's Republic of China, the study of Chinese modern literature gradually increased. Modern-era literature has influenced modern interpretations of nationhood and the creation of a sense of national spirit.[citation needed]
Tang poetry refers topoetry written in or around the time of, or in the characteristic style of, China'sTang dynasty (18 June 618 – 4 June 907, including the 690–705 reign ofWu Zetian) or that follows a certain style, often considered theGolden Age ofChinese poetry. During the Tang dynasty, poetry continued to be an important part of social life at all levels of society. Scholars were required to master poetry for the civil service exams, but the art was theoretically available to everyone.[35] This led to a large record of poetry and poets, a partial record of which survives today. Two of the most famous poets of the period wereLi Bai andDu Fu. Tang poetry has had an ongoing influence on world literature and modern and quasi-modern poetry. TheQuantangshi ("Complete Tang Poems") anthology compiled in the early eighteenth century includes over 48,900 poems written by over 2,200 authors.[36]
TheQuantangwen (全唐文, "Complete Tang Prose"), despite its name, contains more than 1,500fu and is another widely consulted source for Tang poetry.[36] Despite their names, these sources are not comprehensive, and themanuscripts discovered at Dunhuang in the twentieth century included manyshi and somefu, as well as variant readings of poems that were also included in the later anthologies.[36] There are also collections of individual poets' work, which generally can be dated earlier than the Qing anthologies, although few earlier than the eleventh century.[37] Only about a hundred Tang poets have such collected editions extant.[37] Another important source is anthologies of poetry compiled during the Tang dynasty, although only thirteen such anthologies survive in full or in part.[38] Many records of poetry, as well as other writings, were lost when the Tang capital ofChangan was damaged by war in the eighth and ninth centuries, so that while more than 50,000 Tang poems survive (more than any earlier period in Chinese history), this still likely represents only a small portion of the poetry that was actually produced during the period.[37] Many seventh-century poets are reported by the 721 imperial library catalog as having left behind massive volumes of poetry, of which only a tiny portion survives,[37] and there are notable gaps in the poetic œuvres of even Li Bai and Du Fu, the two most celebrated Tang poets.[37]
Ci (辭/辞) are a poetic form, a type oflyric poetry, done in the tradition ofClassical Chinese poetry.Ci use a set ofpoetic meters derived from a base set of certain patterns, in fixed-rhythm, fixed-tone, and variable line-length formal types, or model examples: the rhythmic and tonal pattern of theci are based upon certain, definitive musical song tunes. They are also known asChangduanju (長短句/长短句, "lines of irregular lengths") andShiyu (詩餘/诗馀, "that which is beside poetry").Typically the number ofcharacters in each line and the arrangement oftones were determined by one of around 800 set patterns, each associated with a particular title, calledcípái 詞牌/词牌. Originally they were written to be sung to a tune of that title, with set rhythm,rhyme, and tempo. TheSong dynasty was also a period of great scientific literature, and saw the creation of works such asSu Song'sXin Yixiang Fayao andShen Kuo'sDream Pool Essays. There were also enormous works of historiography and large encyclopedias, such asSima Guang'sZizhi Tongjian of 1084 or theFour Great Books of Song fully compiled and edited by the 11th century.
Notable Confucianists,Taoists and scholars of all classes have made significant contributions to and from documenting history to authoring saintly concepts that seem hundreds of years ahead of time. Although the oldest surviving textual examples of survivingci are from 8th century CEDunhuang manuscripts,[39] beginning in thepoetry of theLiang dynasty, theci followed the tradition of theShi Jing and theyuefu: they were lyrics which developed from anonymous popular songs into a sophisticated literary genre; although in the case of theci form some of its fixed-rhythm patterns have an origin inCentral Asia. The form was further developed in theTang dynasty. Although the contributions ofLi Bo (also known as Li Po, 701 – 762) are fraught with historical doubt, certainly the Tang poetWen Tingyun (812–870) was a great master of theci, writing it in its distinct and mature form.[40] One of the more notable practitioners and developers of this form wasLi Yu of theSouthern Tang dynasty during theFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. However, theci form of Classical Chinese poetry is especially associated with thepoetry of the Song dynasty, during which it was indeed a popular poetic form. A revival of theci poetry form occurred during the end of theMing dynasty and the beginning of theQing dynasty which was characterized by an exploration of the emotions connected with romantic love together with its valorization, often in a context of a brief poetic story narrative within aci poem or a linked group ofci poems in an application of thechuanqi form of short story tales to poetry.[41]
TheQu form of poetry is a type ofClassical Chinese poetry form, consisting of words written in one of a number of certain, settone patterns, based upon the tunes of various songs. ThusQu poems are lyrics with lines of varying longer and shorter lengths, set according to the certain and specific, fixed patterns of rhyme and tone of conventional musical pieces upon which they are based and after which these matched variations in lyrics (or individualQu poems) generally take their name.[42] The fixed-tone type of verse such as theQu and theci together with theshi andfu forms of poetry comprise the three main forms ofClassical Chinese poetry. InChinese literature, theQu (Chinese:曲;pinyin:qǔ;Wade–Giles:chü) form of poetry from theYuan dynasty may be calledYuanqu (元曲 P:Yuánqǔ, W:Yüan-chü). Qu may be derived fromChinese opera, such as theZaju (雜劇/杂剧), in which case these Qu may be referred to assanqu (散曲). TheSan inSanqu refers to the detached status of theQu lyrics of this verse form: in other words, rather than being embedded as part of an opera performance the lyrics stand separately on their own. Since theQu became popular during the lateSouthern Song dynasty, and reached a special height of popularity in thepoetry of the Yuan dynasty, therefore it is often calledYuanqu (元曲), specifying the type ofQu found inChinese opera typical of the Yuan dynasty era. BothSanqu andCi are lyrics written to fit a different melodies, butSanqu differs fromCi in that it is more colloquial, and is allowed to containChenzi (襯字/衬字 "filler words" which are additional words to make a more complete meaning).Sanqu can be further divided intoXiaoling (小令) andSantao (散套), with the latter containing more than one melody.
Chinese fiction, rooted in narrative classics such asShishuo Xinyu,Sou Shen Ji,Wenyuan Yinghua,Da Tang Xiyu Ji,Youyang Zazu,Taiping Guangji, and official histories, developed into thenovel as early as theSong dynasty. The novel as an extended prose narrative which realistically creates a believable world of its own evolved in China and in Europe from the 14th to 18th centuries, though a little earlier in China. Chinese audiences were more interested in history and were more historically minded. They appreciated relative optimism, moral humanism, and relative emphasis on collective behavior and the welfare of the society.[43]The rise of a money economy and urbanization beginning in the Song era led to a professionalization of entertainment which was further encouraged by the spread of printing, the rise of literacy, and education. In both China and Western Europe, the novel gradually became more autobiographical and serious in exploration of social, moral, and philosophical problems. Chinese fiction of the lateMing dynasty and earlyQing dynasty was varied, self-conscious, and experimental. In China, however, there was no counterpart to the 19th-century European explosion of novels. The novels of the Ming and early Qing dynasties represented a pinnacle of classic Chinese fiction. They are well known to most Chinese either directly or through their many adaptations toChinese opera and other forms ofpopular culture, influencing the creation of many stories, plays, movies, games, and other forms of entertainment across other parts of East Asia.[44]
The scholar and literary criticAndrew H. Plaks argues thatRomance of the Three Kingdoms,Water Margin,Journey to the West, andThe Golden Lotus collectively constituted a technical breakthrough reflecting new cultural values and intellectual concerns. Their educated editors, authors, and commentators used thenarrative conventions developed fromearlier story-tellers, such as the episodic structure, interspersed songs and folk sayings, or speaking directly to the reader, but they fashioned self-consciously ironic narratives whose seeming familiarity camouflaged a Neo-Confucian moral critique of late Ming decadence. Plaks explores the textual history of the novels (all published after their author's deaths, usually anonymously) and how the ironic and satiric devices of these novels paved the way for the great novels of the 18th century.[45]The Story of the Stone, orDream of the Red Chamber, which circulated in manuscript until being edited and printed in 1791, is widely considered the greatest of the traditional Chinese novels.[46]The Scholars was published in 1750.[47]
China's fashion history covers hundreds of years with some of the most colorful and diverse arrangements. Different social classes in different eras boast different fashion trends, the color yellow was usually reserved for the emperor during China's Imperial era.
From the beginning of its history,Han clothing (especially in elite circles) was inseparable fromsilk, supposedly discovered by theYellow Emperor's consort,Leizu. The dynasty to follow the Shang, theWestern Zhou dynasty, established a strict hierarchical society that used clothing as a status meridian, and inevitably, the height of one's rank influenced the ornateness of a costume. Such markers included the length of a skirt, the wideness of a sleeve and the degree of ornamentation. In addition to these class-oriented developments, Han Chinese clothing became looser, with the introduction of wide sleeves and jade decorations hung from the sash which served to keep theyi closed. Theyi was essentially wrapped over, in a style known asjiaoling youren, or wrapping the right side over before the left, because of the initially greater challenge to the right-handed wearer (people of Zhongyuan discouragedleft-handedness like many other historical cultures, considering it unnatural, barbarian, uncivilized, and unfortunate). TheShang dynasty (c. 1600 BC – 1046 BC), developed the rudiments of Chinese clothing; it consisted of ayi, a narrow-cuffed, knee-length tunic tied with a sash, and a narrow, ankle-length skirt, calledchang, worn with abixi, a length of fabric that reached the knees. Vivid primary colors and green were used, due to the degree of technology at the time.
During theQing dynasty, China's last imperial dynasty, a dramatic shift of clothing occurred, examples of which include thecheongsam (or qipao in Mandarin). The clothing of the era before the Qing dynasty is referred to asHanfu or traditionalHan Chinese clothing. Many symbols such asphoenix have been used for decorative as well as economic purposes. Among them were theBanners (qí), mostly Manchu, who as a group were calledBanner People (旗人pinyin:qí rén).Manchu women typically wore a one-piece dress that retrospectively came to be known as theqípáo (旗袍,Manchu:sijigiyan orbanner gown). The generic term for both the male and the female forms of Manchu dress, essentially similar garments, waschángpáo (長袍/长袍). Theqipao fitted loosely and hung straight down the body, or flared slightly in an A-line. Under the dynastic laws after 1636, allHan Chinese in the banner system were forced to adopt the Manchu male hairstyle of wearing aqueue as did all Manchu men and dress in Manchuqipao. However, the order for ordinary non-Banner Han civilians to wear Manchu clothing was lifted and only Han who served as officials were required to wear Manchu clothing, with the rest of the civilian Han population dressing however they wanted. Qipao covered most of the woman's body, revealing only the head, hands, and the tips of the toes. The baggy nature of the clothing also served to conceal the figure of the wearer regardless of age. With time, though, theqipao were tailored to become more form fitting and revealing. The modern version, which is now recognized popularly in China as the "standard"qipao, was first developed inShanghai in the 1920s, partly under the influence of Beijing styles. People eagerly sought a more modernized style of dress and transformed the oldqipao to suit their tastes. Slender and form fitting with a high cut, it had great differences from the traditionalqipao. It was high-classcourtesans and celebrities in the city that would make these redesigned tight fittingqipao popular at that time. In Shanghai it was first known aszansae or "long dress" (長衫—Mandarin Chinese: chángshān;Shanghainese:zansae; Cantonese:chèuhngsāam), and it is this name that survives in English as the "cheongsam". Most Han civilian men eventually voluntarily adopted Manchu clothing while Han women continued wearing Han clothing. Until 1911, the changpao was required clothing for Chinese men of a certain class, but Han Chinese women continued to wear loose jacket and trousers, with an overskirt for formal occasions. Theqipao was a new fashion item for Han Chinese women when they started wearing it around 1925.The originalqipao was wide and loose. As hosiery in turn declined in later decades, cheongsams nowadays have come to be most commonly worn with bare legs.
Chinese art isvisual art that, whether ancient or modern, originated in or is practiced in China or by Chinese artists. The Chinese art in theRepublic of China (Taiwan) and that ofoverseas Chinese can also be considered part of Chinese art where it is based in or draws on Chinese heritage and Chinese culture. Early "Stone Age art" dates back to 10,000 BC, mostly consisting of simplepottery and sculptures. After this early period Chinese art, like Chinese history, is typically classified by the succession of rulingdynasties ofChinese emperors, most of which lasted several hundred years.
Chinese art has arguably the oldest continuous tradition in the world, and is marked by an unusual degree of continuity within, and consciousness of, that tradition, lacking an equivalent to the Western collapse and gradual recovery of classical styles. The media that have usually been classified in the West since theRenaissance as thedecorative arts are extremely important in Chinese art, and much of the finest work was produced in large workshops or factories by essentially unknown artists, especially inChinese ceramics.
Different forms of art have swayed under the influence of great philosophers, teachers, religious figures and even political figures. Chinese art encompasses all facets offine art,folk art andperformance art.Porcelain pottery was one of the first forms of art in thePalaeolithic period. Early Chinese music and poetry was influenced by theBook of Songs, and the Chinese poet and statesmanQu Yuan.
Chinese painting became a highly appreciated art in court circles encompassing a wide variety ofShan shui with specialized styles such asMing dynasty painting. EarlyChinese music was based on percussion instruments, which later gave away to stringed and reed instruments. By theHan dynastypapercutting became a new art form after the invention of paper.Chinese opera would also be introduced and branched regionally in addition to other performance formats such asvariety arts.
The Chinese paper lantern (紙燈籠, 纸灯笼) is alantern made of thin, brightly colored paper.[48] Paper lanterns come in various shapes and sizes, as well as various methods of construction. In their simplest form, they are simply apaper bag with acandle placed inside, although more complicatedlanterns consist of a collapsiblebamboo or metal frame of hoops covered with toughpaper. Sometimes, other lanterns can be made out of colored silk (usually red) or vinyl. Silk lanterns are also collapsible with a metal expander and are decorated with Chinese characters and/or designs. The vinyl lanterns are more durable; they can resist rain, sunlight, and wind. Paper lanterns do not last very long, they soon break, and silk lanterns last longer. The gold paper on them will soon fade away to a pale white, and the red silk will become a mix between pink and red. Often associated withfestivals, paper lanterns are common in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and similarly inChinatowns with large communities ofOverseas Chinese, where they are often hung outside of businesses to attract attention. In Japanthe traditional styles includebonbori andchōchin and there is a special style of lettering calledchōchin moji used to write on them. Airborne paper lanterns are calledsky lanterns, and are often released into the night sky for aesthetic effect atlantern festivals.
The Chinese sky lantern (天燈, 天灯), also known asKongming lantern, is a smallhot air balloon made of paper, with an opening at the bottom where a small fire is suspended. In Asia and elsewhere around the world, sky lanterns have been traditionally made for centuries, to be launched for play or as part of long-established festivities. The name "sky lantern" is a translation of theChinese name but they have also been referred to assky candles orfire balloons. The general design is a thin paper shell, which may be from about 30cm to a couple ofmetres across, with an opening at the bottom. The opening is usually about 10 to 30 cm wide (even for the largest shells), and is surrounded by a stiff collar that serves to suspend theflame source and to keep it away from the walls. When lit, the flame heats the air inside the lantern, thus lowering its density and causing the lantern to rise into the air. The sky lantern is only airborne for as long as the flame stays alight, after which the lantern sinks back to the ground.
The oldest existing Chinese fans are a pair of wovenbamboo, wood or paper side-mounted fans from the 2nd century BCE.[49] TheChinese character for "fan" (扇) is etymologically derived from a picture of feathers under a roof. A particular status and gender would be associated with a specific type of fan. During theSong dynasty, famous artists were often commissioned to paint fans. The Chinese dancing fan was developed in the 7th century. The Chinese form of the hand fan was a row of feathers mounted in the end of a handle. In the later centuries, Chinese poems and four-word idioms were used to decorate the fans by using Chinese calligraphy pens. In ancient China, fans came in various shapes and forms (such as in a leaf, oval or a half-moon shape), and were made in different materials such as silk, bamboo, feathers, etc.[50]
Carved lacquer orQīdiāo (Chinese:漆雕) is a distinctive Chinese form of decoratedlacquerware. While lacquer has been used in China for at least 3,000 years,[51] the technique of carving into very thick coatings of it appears to have been developed in the 12th century CE. It is extremely time-consuming to produce, and has always been a luxury product, essentially restricted to China,[52] though imitated inJapanese lacquer in somewhat different styles. The producing process is calledDiāoqī (雕漆/彫漆, carving lacquer).Though most surviving examples are from theMing andQing dynasties, the main types of subject matter for the carvings were all begun under theSong dynasty, and the development of both these and the technique of carving were essentially over by the early Ming. These types were the abstractguri or Sword-Pommel pattern, figures in a landscape, and birds and plants. To these some designs with religious symbols, animals, auspicious characters(right) and imperial dragons can be added.[51] The objects made in the technique are a wide range of small types, but are mostly practical vessels or containers such as boxes, plates and trays. Some screens and pieces ofChinese furniture were made. Carved lacquer is only rarely combined with painting in lacquer and other lacquer techniques.[53]
Later Chinese writers dated the introduction of carved lacquer to theTang dynasty (618–906), and many modern writers have pointed to some late Tang pieces of armour found on theSilk Road byAurel Stein and now in theBritish Museum. These are red and black lacquer oncamel hide, but the lacquer is very thin, "less than one millimeter in thickness", and the effect very different, with simple abstract shapes on a plain field and almost no impression ofrelief.[54][55][56] The style of carving into thick lacquer used later is first seen in theSouthern Song (1127–1279), following the development of techniques for making very thick lacquer.[57] There is some evidence from literary sources that it had existed in the late Tang.[58] At first the style of decoration used is known asguri (屈輪/曲仑) from the Japanese word for the ring-pommel of a sword, where the same motifs were used in metal, and is often called the "Sword-Pommel pattern" in English. This style uses a family of repeated two-branched scrolling shapes cut with a rounded profile at the surface, but below that a "V" section through layers of lacquer in different colours (black, red and yellow, and later green), giving a "marbled" effect from the contrasted colours; this technique is calledtìxī (剔犀/剃犀) in Chinese. This style continued to be used up to theMing dynasty, especially on small boxes and jars with covers, though after the Song only red was often used, and the motifs were often carved with wider flat spaces at the bottom level to be exposed.[59]
A folding screen (simplified Chinese:屏风;traditional Chinese:屏風) is a type of free-standingfurniture. It consists of several frames or panels, which are often connected byhinges or by other means. It can be made in a variety of designs and with different kinds of materials. Folding screens have many practical and decorative uses. It originated fromancient China, eventually spreading to the rest of East Asia, Europe, and other parts of the world. Screens date back to China during the EasternZhou period (771–256 BCE).[60][61] These were initially one-panel screens in contrast to folding screens.[62] Folding screens were invented during theHan dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE).[63] Depictions of those folding screens have been found in Han-era tombs, such as one inZhucheng, Shandong Province.[60]
Folding screens were originally made from wooden panels and painted onlacquered surfaces, eventually folding screens made from paper orsilk became popular too.[62] Even though folding screens were known to have been used sinceantiquity, it became rapidly popular during theTang dynasty (618–907).[64] During the Tang dynasty, folding screens were considered ideal ornaments for many painters to display theirpaintings andcalligraphy on.[61][62] Many artists painted on paper or silk and applied it onto the folding screen.[61] There were two distinct artistic folding screens mentioned in historical literature of the era. One of it was known as thehuaping (simplified Chinese:画屏;traditional Chinese:畫屏;lit. 'painted folding screen') and the other was known as theshuping (simplified Chinese:书屏;traditional Chinese:書屏;lit. 'calligraphed folding screen').[62][64] It was not uncommon for people to commission folding screens from artists, such as from Tang-era painter Cao Ba orSong-era painterGuo Xi.[61] The landscape paintings on folding screens reached its height during the Song dynasty (960–1279).[60] Thelacquer techniques for theCoromandel screens, which is known askuǎncǎi (款彩 "incised colors"),[65] emerged during the lateMing dynasty (1368–1644)[66] and was applied to folding screens to create dark screens incised, painted, and inlaid with art ofmother-of-pearl, ivory, or other materials.
Chinese jade (玉) refers to thejademined orcarved in China from theNeolithic onward. It is the primaryhardstone ofChinese sculpture. Although deep and bright greenjadeite is better known in Europe, for most of China's history, jade has come in a variety of colors and white "mutton-fat"nephrite was the most highly praised and prized. Native sources inHenan and along theYangtze were exploited since prehistoric times and have largely been exhausted; most Chinese jade today is extracted from the northwesternprovince ofXinjiang. Jade was prized for itshardness,durability,musical qualities, and beauty.[67] In particular, its subtle, translucent colors and protective qualities[67] caused it to become associated with Chinese conceptions of thesoul andimmortality.[68] The most prominent early use was the crafting of theSix Ritual Jades, found since the 3rd-millennium BCLiangzhu culture: thebi, thecong, thehuang, thehu, thegui, and thezhang.[69] Although these items are so ancient that their original meaning is uncertain, by the time of the composition of theRites of Zhou, they were thought to represent thesky, theearth, and thefour directions. By theHan dynasty, the royal family and prominent lords were buried entirely ensheathed injade burial suits sewn in gold thread, on the idea that it would preserve the body and the souls attached to it. Jade was also thought to combat fatigue in the living.[67] The Han also greatly improved prior artistic treatment of jade.[70] These uses gave way after theThree Kingdoms period toBuddhist practices and new developments inTaoism such asalchemy. Nonetheless, jade remained part oftraditional Chinese medicine and an important artistic medium. Although its use never became widespread inJapan, jade became important to the art ofKorea and Southeast Asia.
Loongs, also known as Chinese Dragon, arelegendary creatures inChinese mythology,Chinese folklore, and East Asian culture. Chinese dragons have manyanimal-like forms such asturtles andfish, but are most commonly depicted assnake-like with four legs. They traditionally symbolize potent andauspicious powers, particularly control over water, rainfall, typhoons, and floods. The dragon is also a symbol of power, strength, and good luck for people who are worthy of it. During the days of Imperial China, theEmperor of China usually used the dragon as a symbol of his imperial power and strength.[71][unreliable source?] They are also the symbol and representative for theSon of Heaven, theMandate of Heaven, theCelestial Empire and theChinese Tributary System during thehistory of China.
Fenghuang (鳳凰) aremythological birds found in Chinese and East Asian mythology that reign over all other birds. Themales were originally calledfeng and thefemaleshuang but such a distinction of gender is often no longer made and they are blurred into a single feminine entity so that the bird can be paired with theChinese dragon, which is traditionally deemed male. The fenghuang is also called the "August Rooster" (simplified Chinese:鹍鸡;traditional Chinese:鶤雞 or 鵾雞;pinyin:yùnjī or kūnjī;Wade–Giles:yün4-chi1 or k'un1-chi1) since it sometimes takes the place of theRooster in theChinese zodiac.[citation needed] In the Western world, it is commonly called the Chinese phoenix or simply Phoenix, although mythological similarities with the Westernphoenix are superficial.[citation needed]
The Qilin ([tɕʰǐ.lǐn];Chinese:麒麟), or Kirin in Japanese, is amythical hoovedchimerical creature in Chinese culture, said to appear with the imminent arrival or passing of asage or illustrious ruler.[72] Qilin is a specific type of thelin mythological family of one-horned beasts. The earliest references to theqilin are in the 5th century BCZuo Zhuan.[73][74] Theqilin made appearances in a variety of subsequent Chinese works of history and fiction, such asFeng Shen Bang.Emperor Wu of Han apparently captured a liveqilin in 122 BC, althoughSima Qian was skeptical of this.[75][better source needed]
Xuanwu (Chinese:玄武) is one of theFour Symbols of theChinese constellations. Despite its English name, it is usually depicted as aturtle entwined together with asnake. It is known as Genbu inJapanese and Hyeonmu inKorean. It represents thenorth and thewinter season. In Japan, it is one of the four guardian spirits that protect Kyoto and it is said that it protects the city on the north. Represented by theKenkun Shrine, which is located on top of Mt Funaoka in Kyoto. The creature's name is identical to that of the importantTaoistgodXuanwu, who is sometimes (as inJourney to the West) portrayed in the company of a turtle and snake.
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Music and dance were closely associated in the very early periods of China. Themusic of China dates back to thedawn of Chinese civilization with documents and artifacts providing evidence of a well-developed musical culture as early as theZhou dynasty (1122 BCE – 256 BCE). The earliest music of the Zhou dynasty recorded in ancient Chinese texts includes the ritual music calledyayue and each piece may be associated with a dance. Some of the oldest written music dates back toConfucius's time. The first major well-documented flowering of Chinese music was exemplified through the popularization of theqin (plucked instrument with seven strings) during theTang dynasty, although the instrument is known to have played a major role before the Han dynasty.
There are manymusical instruments that are integral to Chinese culture, such as theXun (Ocarina-type instrument that is also integral in Native American cultures),Guzheng (zither with movable bridges),guqin (bridgeless zither),sheng andxiao (vertical flute), theerhu (alto fiddle or bowed lute),pipa (pear-shaped plucked lute), and many others.
Dance in China is a highly varied art form, consisting of many modern and traditional dance genres. The dances cover a wide range, from folk dances to performances in opera and ballet, and may be used in public celebrations, rituals and ceremonies. There are also 56 officially recognizedethnic groups in China, and each ethnic minority group in China also has its own folk dances. The best known Chinese dances today are theDragon dance and theLion Dance.
Chinese architecture is a style ofarchitecture that has taken shape through the ages and influenced the architecture of East Asia for many centuries. The structural principles of Chinese architecture have remained largely unchanged, the main changes being only the decorative details. Since the Tang dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of East Asia such asJapan andKorea. Chinese architecture, examples for which can be found from more than 2,000 years ago, is almost as old as Chinese civilization and has long been an important hallmark of Chinese culture. There are certain features common to Chinese architecture, regardless of specific regions, different provinces or use. The most important issymmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeur as it applies to everything from palaces to farmhouses. One notable exception is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible. Like Chinese scroll paintings, the principle underlying the garden's composition is to create enduring flow, to let the patron wander and enjoy the garden without prescription, as in nature herself.Feng shui has played a very important part in structural development. The Chinese garden is a landscape garden style which has evolved over three thousand years. It includes both the vast gardens of theChinese emperors and members of the imperial family, built for pleasure and to impress, and the more intimate gardens created by scholars, poets, former government officials, soldiers and merchants, made for reflection and escape from the outside world. They create an idealized miniature landscape, which is meant to express the harmony that should exist betweenman and nature.[76] A typical Chinese garden is enclosed by walls and includes one or more ponds, rock works, trees and flowers, and an assortment of halls and pavilions within the garden, connected by winding paths and zig-zag galleries. By moving from structure to structure, visitors can view a series of carefully composed scenes, unrolling like a scroll of landscape paintings.
The Chinese palace is an imperial complex where the royal court and the civil government resided. Its structures are considerable and elaborate. The Chinese charactergong (宮; meaning "palace") represents two connected rooms (呂) under a roof (宀). Originally the character applied to any residence or mansion, but it was used in reference to solely the imperial residence since theQin dynasty (3rd century BC). A Chinese palace is composed of many buildings. It has large areas surrounded by walls and moats. It contains large halls (殿) for ceremonies and official business, as well as smaller buildings,temples, towers, residences, galleries, courtyards,gardens, and outbuildings. Apart from the main imperial palace,Chinese dynasties also had several other imperial palaces in the capital city where the empress, crown prince, or other members of the imperial family dwelled. There also existed palaces outside of the capital city called "away palaces" (離宮/离宫) where the emperors resided when traveling. Empress dowagerCixi (慈禧太后) built theSummer Palace or Yiheyuan (頤和園/颐和园 – "The Garden of Nurtured Harmony") near theOld Summer Palace, but on a much smaller scale than the Old Summer Palace.[a]
Paifang, also known as aPailou, is a traditional style ofChinesearchitecturalarch or gateway structure that is related to theIndianTorana from which it is derived.[77] The wordpaifang (Chinese:牌坊;pinyin:páifāng) was originally a collective term for the top two levels of administrative division and subdivisions of ancient Chinese cities. The largest division within a city in ancient China was afang (坊;fāng), equivalent to a current dayward. Each fang was enclosed by walls or fences, and the gates of these enclosures were shut and guarded every night. Each fang was further divided into severalpai (牌;pái; 'placard'), which is equivalent to a current day (unincorporated) community. Each pai, in turn, contained an area including severalhutongs (alleyways). This system of urban administrative division and subdivision reached an elaborate level during theTang dynasty, and continued in the following dynasties. For example, during theMing dynasty,Beijing was divided into a total of 36 fangs. Originally, the wordpaifang referred to the gate of a fang and the marker for an entrance of a building complex or a town; but by theSong dynasty, a paifang had evolved into a purely decorative monument.
The Chinese garden is a landscape garden style which has evolved over the years.[78] It includes both the vast gardens of theChinese emperors and members of the imperial family, built for pleasure and to impress, and the more intimate gardens created by scholars, poets, former government officials, soldiers and merchants, made for reflection and escape from the outside world. They create an idealized miniature landscape, which is meant to express the harmony that should exist between man and nature.[76] A typical Chinese garden is enclosed by walls and includes one or more ponds, rock works, trees and flowers, and an assortment of halls and pavilions within the garden, connected by winding paths and zig-zag galleries. By moving from structure to structure, visitors can view a series of carefully composed scenes, unrolling like a scroll of landscape paintings. The earliest recorded Chinese gardens were created in the valley of theYellow River, during theShang dynasty (1600–1046 BC). These gardens were large enclosed parks where the kings and nobles hunted game, or where fruit and vegetables were grown. Early inscriptions from this period, carved on tortoise shells, have three Chinese characters for garden,you,pu andyuan.You was a royal garden where birds and animals were kept, while pu was a garden for plants. During theQin dynasty (221–206 BC),yuan became the character for all gardens.[79]
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The old character foryuan is a small picture of a garden; it is enclosed in a square which can represent a wall, and has symbols which can represent the plan of a structure, a small square which can represent a pond, and a symbol for a plantation or a pomegranate tree.[80] According to theShiji, one of the most famous features of this garden was theWine Pool and Meat Forest (酒池肉林). A large pool, big enough for several small boats, was constructed on the palace grounds, with inner linings of polished oval shaped stones from the sea shores. The pool was then filled with wine. A small island was constructed in the middle of the pool, where trees were planted, which had skewers of roasted meat hanging from their branches. King Zhou and his friends and concubines drifted in their boats, drinking the wine with their hands and eating the roasted meat from the trees. Later Chinese philosophers and historians cited this garden as an example of decadence and bad taste.[81]: 11 During theSpring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), in 535 BC, theTerrace of Shanghua, with lavishly decorated palaces, was built byKing Jing of theZhou dynasty. In 505 BC, an even more elaborate garden, theTerrace of Gusu, was begun. It was located on the side of a mountain, and included a series of terraces connected by galleries, along with a lake where boats in the form of blue dragons navigated. From the highest terrace, a view extended as far asLake Tai, the Great Lake.[81]: 12
China is one of themain birthplaces of Eastern martial arts. Chinese martial arts, often named under theumbrella termskung fu andwushu, are theseveral hundred fighting styles that have developed over the centuries in China. These fighting styles are often classified according to common traits, identified as"families" (家;jiā),"sects" (派;pài) or"schools" (门/門;mén) of martial arts. Examples of such traits includeShaolinquan (少林拳) physical exercises involvingFive Animals (五形) mimicry, or training methods inspired byOld Chinese philosophies, religions and legends. Styles that focus onqi manipulation are called"internal "(內家拳/内家拳;nèijiāquán), while others that concentrate on improving muscle and cardiovascular fitness are called"external" (外家拳;wàijiāquán). Geographical association, as in "northern"(北拳;běiquán) and"southern" (南拳;nánquán), is another popular classification method.
Chinese martial arts are collectively given the nameKung Fu (gong) "achievement" or "merit", and (fu) "man", thus "human achievement") or (previously and in some modern contexts)Wushu ("martial arts" or "military arts"). China also includes the home to the well-respectedShaolin Monastery andWudang Mountains. The first generation of art started more for the purpose of survival and warfare than art. Over time, some art forms have branched off, while others have retained a distinct Chinese flavor. Regardless, China has produced some of the most renowned martial artists includingWong Fei Hung andmany others. The arts have also co-existed with a variety of weapons including the more standard18 arms. Legendary and controversial moves likeDim Mak are also praised and talked about within the culture.Martial arts schools also teach the art oflion dance, which has evolved from a pugilistic display of Kung Fu to an entertaining dance performance.
A number ofgames and pastimes are popular within Chinese culture. The most common game isMahjong. The same pieces are used for other styled games such asShanghai Solitaire. Others includepai gow,pai gow poker and otherbone domino games.Weiqi andxiangqi are also popular. Ethnic games likeChinese yo-yo are also part of the culture where it is performed during social events.
Qigong is the practice of spiritual, physical, and medical techniques. It is as a form of exercise and although it is commonly used among the elderly, any one of any age can practice it during their free time.
Chinese cuisine is a very important part of Chinese culture, which includes cuisine originating from the diverse regions of China, as well as from Chinese people in other parts of the world. Because of theChinese diaspora and historical power of the country, Chinese cuisine has influenced many other cuisines inAsia, with modifications made to cater to local palates.[82]Seasoning andcooking techniques of Chinese provinces depend on differences inhistorical background andethnic groups. Geographic features including mountains, rivers, forests and deserts also have a strong effect on the local available ingredients, considering climate of China varies fromtropical in the south tosubarctic in the northeast.Imperial, royal and noble preference also plays a role in the change of Chinese cuisines. Because of imperial expansion and trading, ingredients and cooking techniques from other cultures are integrated into Chinese cuisines over time. The most praised "Four Major Cuisines" areChuan,Lu,Yue andHuaiyang, representing West, North, South and East China cuisine correspondingly.[83] Modern "Eight Cuisines" of China[84] areAnhui,Cantonese,Fujian,Hunan,Jiangsu,Shandong,Sichuan, andZhejiang cuisines.[85] Color, smell and taste are the three traditional aspects used to describe Chinese food,[86] as well as the meaning, appearance and nutrition of the food. Cooking should be appraised from ingredients used, cuttings, cooking time and seasoning. It is considered inappropriate to use knives on the dining table.Chopsticks are the main eating utensils for Chinese food, which can be used to cut and pick up food.
The practice of drinkingtea has a long history in China, having originated there.[87] The history of tea in China is long and complex, for theChinese have enjoyed tea for millennia. Scholars hailed the brew as a cure for a variety of ailments; the nobility considered the consumption of good tea as a mark of their status, and the common people simply enjoyed its flavour. In 2016, the discovery of the earliest known physical evidence of tea from the mausoleum ofEmperor Jing of Han inXi'an was announced, indicating that tea from the genusCamellia was drunk byHan dynasty emperors as early as 2nd century BC.[88] Tea then became a popular drink in the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) Dynasties.[89]
Although tea originated in China, during the Tang dynasty, Chinese tea generally represents tea leaves which have been processed using methods inherited fromancient China. According to popular legend, tea was discovered by Chinese EmperorShen Nong in 2737 BCE when a leaf from a nearby shrub fell into water the emperor was boiling.[90] Tea is deeply woven into the history and culture of China. The beverage is considered one of theseven necessities of Chinese life, along with firewood, rice, oil, salt, soy sauce and vinegar.[91] During theSpring and Autumn period, Chinese tea was used for medicinal purposes and it was the period when the Chinese people first enjoyed the juice extracted from the tea leaves that they chewed.[citation needed]
Chinese tea culture refers to how tea is prepared as well as the occasions when people consume tea in China. Tea culture in China differs from that in European countries such asBritain and other Asian countries likeJapan in preparation, taste, and the occasions when people consume tea. Even today, tea is consumed regularly, both at casual and formal occasions. In addition to being a popular beverage, tea is used intraditional Chinese medicine, as well as in Chinese cuisine.Green tea is one of the main teas originating in China.
Imperial, royal and noble preference played a role in the changes in Chinese cuisines over time.[92] Because of imperial expansion and trading, ingredients and cooking techniques from other cultures were integrated into Chinese cuisines over time. The overwhelmingly large variety of Chinese cuisine comes mainly from the practice of the dynastic periods, whenemperors would host banquets with over 100 dishes per meal.[93] A countless number of imperial kitchen staff andconcubines were involved in the food preparation process. Over time, many dishes became part of the everyday citizen's cuisine. Some of the highest quality restaurants with recipes close to the dynastic periods include Fangshan restaurant inBeihai ParkBeijing and the Oriole Pavilion.[93] Arguably all branches ofHong Kong eastern style are in some ways rooted from the original dynastic cuisines.
Manhan Quanxi, literallyManchu Han Imperial Feast was one of the grandest meals ever documented in Chinese cuisine. It consisted of at least 108 unique dishes from theManchu andHan Chinese culture during theQing dynasty, and it is only reserved and intended for theemperors. The meal was held for three whole days, across six banquets. The culinary skills consisted of cooking methods from all overImperial China.[94] When theManchus conquered China and founded theQing dynasty, the Manchu and Han Chinese peoples struggled for power. TheKangxi Emperor wanted to resolve the disputes so he held a banquet during his 66th birthday celebrations. The banquet consisted of Manchu and Han dishes, with officials from both ethnic groups attending the banquet together. After theWuchang Uprising, common people learned about the imperial banquet. The original meal was served in theForbidden City inBeijing.[94]
Chinese culture consists of many subcultures. In China, the cultural difference between adjacent provinces (and, in some cases, adjacent counties within the same province) can often be as big as than that between adjacent European nations.[95] Thus, the concept ofHan Chinese subgroups (漢族民系/汉族民系, literally "Han ethnic lineage") was born, used for classifying these subgroups within the greater Han ethnicity. These subgroups are, as a general rule, classified based on linguistic differences.
Using this linguistic classification, some of the well-known subcultures within China include:
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