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Chinese alchemy (煉丹術liàndānshù "method for refiningcinnabar") is a historical Chinese approach toalchemy. According to original texts such as theCantong qi, the body is understood as the focus of cosmological processes summarized in the five agents of change, orWuxing, the observation and cultivation of which leads the practitioner into alignment and harmony with theTao. Therefore, the traditional view in China is that alchemy focuses mainly on longevity and the purification of one's spirit, mind and body, providing, health, longevity and wisdom, through the practice ofQigong andwuxingheqidao. The consumption and use of various concoctions known as alchemical medicines orelixirs, each of which having different purposes but largely were concerned withimmortality.
Pao zhi (炮制;Pao chi) orProcessing (Chinese materia medica) is used inTraditional Chinese Medicine, such as honey or wine frying and roasting with toxic metals such asmercury,lead, andarsenic.[1]
Daoism had two distinct parts, the classical Daojia (道家 Tao chia), which was mystical and stemmed primarily fromLaozi andZhuangzi, and the more popular Daojiao (道教 Tao chiao), which was the popular, magical andalchemical side of Daoism. In general, classical Daojia was more austere, whereas Daojiao was more practiced by the general populace.[2]
Chinese alchemy was introduced to the West byObed Simon Johnson.[3]
By refining bases into gold and ingesting the "fake" or synthetic gold as aprepared pill, orjindan (金丹), alchemists believed that immortal life would be delivered. The idea that fake gold was superior to real gold arose because the alchemists believed the combination of a variety of substances (and the transformation of these substances through roasting or burning) gave the final substance a spiritual value, possessing a superior essence when compared to natural gold.[2]Gold andmercury (in the form ofcinnabar) were the most sought-after substances to manipulate and ingest. These metals were believed to have an inner essence of longevity due to them being relativelychemically inert and resistant to weathering as opposed to common metals like copper and iron, and are thus hypothesized to transfer their essence to the consumer and extend life as a result.
Cinnabar is a mineral with a reddish-brown colour and is the most common source of mercury in nature.[4] The significance of its red colour and difficulty with which it was refined implied to alchemists its connection with the search for immortality. The colour was significant to symbolic belief as well, red being considered in Chinese culture to be the "zenith of the colour representing the sun, fire, royalty and energy."[2] Cinnabar could also be roasted, which produced liquidmercury (also known as quicksilver). This substance was ingested but it could also be combined withsulphur and burned again to return to its natural form of cinnabar, the solid seen as theyang to quicksilver'syin.[2] In China, gold was quite rare, so it was usually imported from other surrounding countries. However, cinnabar could be refined in the mountains ofSichuan andHunan provinces in central China.
Although the majority ofxian (immortality) elixirs were combinations ofjindan, many other elixirs were formed by combining metallic bases with natural herbs or animal by-products. Therhinoceros' horn was commonly used in medicines and elixirs and was held to have fertility-increasing abilities. Elixirs could also have more lethal components likearsenic andsulphur as ingredients.
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Both the Eastern practice and the later Western practice ofalchemy are remarkably similar in their methods and ultimate purpose. To be sure, the desire to create an elixir of immortality was more appealing to the Taoists, but European alchemists were not averse to seeking out formulas for various longevity-boosting substances. The secret of transmuting one element into another, specificallybase metals into gold or silver, was equally explored by both schools for obvious reasons.[citation needed]
In the European outlook, the ability to turn relatively worthless materials into gold was attractive enough to allow medieval alchemy to enjoy extensive practice long after the Chinese form had been forgotten.[citation needed] Alternatively,transmutation was also a means of accruing theprecious metals that were key in making life-extending elixirs, and were otherwise expensive and difficult to obtain. Alchemical knowledge in the East and West favored different opinions of the true form of alchemy due to differenttheological views and cultural biases, however these disputes do not lessen the integrity of alchemy'scanonical nature.
Chinese alchemy specifically was consistent in its practice from the beginning, and there was relatively little controversy among its practitioners[citation needed]. Definition amongst alchemists varied only in their medical prescription for the elixir of immortality, or perhaps only over their names for it, of whichsinology has counted about 1000.[citation needed] Because the Chinese approach was through the fundamental doctrine ofYin andYang, the influence of theI Ching, and the teachings of theFive Elements, Chinese alchemy had its roots considerably more in obtaining a higher mental-spiritual level.[citation needed]
In the West, there were conflicts between advocates of herbal and "chemical" (mineral)pharmacy, but in China, mineral remedies were always accepted. In Europe, there were conflicts between alchemists who favored gold-making and those who thought medicine the proper goal, but the Chinese always favored the latter.[citation needed] Since alchemy rarely achieved any of these goals, it was an advantage to the Western alchemist to have the situation obscured, and the art survived in Europe long after Chinese alchemy had simply faded away.[citation needed]
Despite much research, many scholars are still unable to marshal conflicting evidence in order to determine when exactly Chinese alchemy started. It was thought that China was making gold about one thousand years before Confucius' time, but this is contradicted by other academics stating that during the 5th century BCE there was no word for gold and that it was an unknown metal in China.[5]
However, despite the uncertain origins, there are enough similarities in the ideas of practices of Chinese alchemy and the Daoist tradition so that one can conclude thatLaozi andZhang Daoling are the creators of this tradition. In her article, Radcliffe tells that Zhang rejected serving the Emperor and retreated to live in the mountains. At this time, he met Laozi and together they created (or attempted to create) the Elixir of Life (Radcliffe, 2001), by creating the theory that would be used in order to achieve the making of such an elixir. This is the starting point to the Chinese tradition of alchemy, whose purpose was to achieve immortality.
One of the first evidence of Chinese alchemy being openly discussed in history is duringthe Qin's First Emperor's period when Huan Kuan (73–49 BC) states how modifying forms of nature and ingesting them will bring immortality to the person who drinks them.[6] Before Huan Kuan, the idea of alchemy was to turn base metals into gold. Conflicting research on the origins of alchemy are further demonstrated by Cooper, who claims that alchemy "flourished well before 144 BCE, for at that date the Emperor issued an edict which ordered public execution for anyone found making counterfeit gold".[2] This suggests that people were well aware of how to heat the metals in order to change them into a desired form. A further counter to Pregadio from Cooper is the latter's contention that an emperor in 60 BCE had hired "a well-known scholar,Liu Hsiang, as Master of the Recipes so that he could make alchemical gold and prolong the Emperor's life." All of these conflicting origins considered, it is nearly impossible to claim any absolute knowledge on the origins of Chinese alchemy. However, historical texts of Daoist teaching include alchemical practices, most of which posit the existence of an elixir or the Golden Elixir that, when ingested, gives the drinker eternal life.
As there is a direct connection between Daoism andLaozi, some suggest he played a major role in the creation of Chinese alchemy.Zhou Dynasty philosopherZou Yan is said to have written many of the alchemical books, although none of them have ever been found, nor have the existing ones been credited to him.[5] The likeliest proponents of Chinese alchemy are as previously stated, Laozi, andZhang Daoling as well asZhuangzi. Each of these men are major icons in Daoist teachings. Although these three are credited with the creation of alchemy, there is no definitive proof to suggest or dispute that they were responsible for its creation.
The concept of yin-yang is pervasive throughout Chinese alchemical theory. Metals were categorized as being male or female, andmercury andsulphur especially were thought to have powers relating tolunar andsolar respectively.[2]
Prior to Taoist tradition, the Chinese already had very definitive notions of the natural world's processes and "changes", especially involving thewu xing: Water, Fire, Earth, Metal and Wood.[7] These were commonly thought to be interchangeable with one another; each were capable of becoming another element. The concept is integral, as the belief in outer alchemy necessitates the belief in natural elements being able to change into others. The cyclical balance of the elements relates to the binary opposition of yin-yang, and so it appears quite frequently.
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Chinese alchemy can be divided into two methods of practice,waidan or "external alchemy" andneidan or "internal alchemy". Doctrine can be accessed to describe these methods in greater detail; the majority of Chinese alchemical sources can be found in theDaozang, the "Taoist Canon".
The meaning ofwaidan derives fromwai (outside, exterior) anddan referring to alchemical operations, such as the preparation of chemical elixirs, made fromcinnabar,realgar, and other substances generally involvingmercury,sulfur,lead, andarsenic or else the animal and botanical products which are found inChinese herbology andTraditional Chinese medicine. Waidan refers to practices relating to the process of making an elixir often containing herbal or chemical substances found outside of the body. This process involves esoteric oral instructions, building a laboratory, kindling and sustaining the special fires used in the production process, rules of seclusion and purification for the alchemist to follow, and various practices including the performance of ceremonies to protect the self and the ritual area. Waidan can also include following a dietary regimen which prescribes or proscribes certain foods. Preparing medicines and elixirs can be referred to as outer practices or waidan as these practices occur outside of the body until they are verified by the ingestion of medicines, herbs, and pills to bring about physical changes within the body, separate to the soul.
The term Neidan can be divided into two parts: Nei, meaning inner, and Dan, which refers to alchemy, elixir, and cinnabar (mercury). Neidan uses techniques such as: composed meditation techniques, visualization, breathing and bodily posture exercises. Breathing exercises were used to preserve jing or "life essence" and bodily postures were used to improve qi or "energy" flow in the body. Neidan comprises the elixir from the principles ofTraditional Chinese Medicine and the cultivation of substances already present in the body, in particular the manipulation of three substances in the body known as the "Three Treasures".
The three treasures are:
The three treasures are also associated with locations in the body where the alchemical process takes place. These locations include major organs and energy centers, calleddantians.
During the Han dynasty and after, Neidan and Daoist martial arts gradually merged into one, becomingNeijia martial arts. Famous Taijiquan masters who practiced Neijia includeWu Tunan (吳圖南) andChen Weiming (陳微明).
When ingested, these compounds did not always result in the desired outcome. Many individuals died or had psychological difficulties after taking certain elixirs. However, the loss of life may not have seemed a large risk, when compared with the promise of the afterlife. Although these elixirs were lethal or dangerous, there is some contention that these individuals were not ignorant of the fatality of some of the materials they were ingesting.
There were certain grades of immortality, so if the practiced alchemist died, the level of immortality they achieved was determined by their corpse. If their corpse was sweet-smelling, it was said that they had achieved immortality in an ephemeral state. Likewise, if their corpse disappeared, leaving behind only the clothes, such as in the death of the adeptGe Hong (Ko Hung) according to the legend, this was another form of immortality known asshih chieh hsien (corpse-free immortals).[2]
Medicines can be used to heal ailments on the exterior or interior of the body, to control the ageing of the body, or even to prevent death. The term medicine and elixir are virtually interchangeable because of the array of ailments they can influence. The difference between defining an elixir from a medicine was that many medicines were composed mainly of all natural products like herbs and animal products. Never the animals themselves, only their products, which could consist of dung or fur. Although metal compounds are more potent when curing ailments, herbs were used because they were easier to combine and more abundantly available. To make medicines one would use ingredients like:Reynoutria, which would be used in famous longevity pills likeFo-Ti;[8]Asparagus, which was used because it was known to increase strength;sesame, which prevents senility; andpine which has over 300 different uses.[2] Mushrooms were and still are very popular, they are known as theLingzhi (Ganoderma) and have thousands of purposes within Chinese alchemy.
With the rise of alchemy in Chinese civilization, alchemy began to be seen as an art. Among many practitioners, a significant number of women were known to have mastered this art. The earliest recorded woman alchemist had the family name ofFang (Chinese:方), and lived around the first century B.C.[9] Raised in a scholarly family skilled in the alchemical arts, she studied alchemy with one of the EmperorHan Wu Ti's spouses, and therefore had access to the highest levels of society. Fang was credited with the discovery of the method to turn mercury into silver. It was believed that she may have used the chemical technique of silverextraction fromores using mercury, where pure silver residue is left behind from the boiled mercury. Fang's husband was Cheng Wei (simplified Chinese:程伟;traditional Chinese:程偉; seezh:程偉). Details of Fang's life were recorded by author and alchemistGe Hong.[9]
Keng Hsien-Seng (circa A.D. 975)[10] was another female alchemist who, according to the science writings of Wu Shu "mastered the art of the yellow and white [alchemy] with many other strong transformations, mysterious and incomprehensible".[9] Wu Shu also described Keng as being acquainted with other Taoist techniques and was believed able to control the spirits. She also mastered the transformation of mercury and "snow" into silver, probably using the technique of extraction of silver from its ores, as well as using a primitive type ofSoxhlet process to continuously extractcamphor into alcohol.[9]
Other female alchemists who have been recognized in Chinese literature arePao Ku Ko (third century A.D.),[11]Thai Hsuan Nu,[12]Sun Pu-Eh (12th century), andShen Yu Hsiu (15th century).[9]
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