 | |
 Pakistan |  China |
|---|---|
| Diplomatic mission | |
| Embassy of Pakistan,Beijing | Embassy of China,Islamabad |
| Envoy | |
| Pakistani Ambassador to ChinaMoin ul Haque | Chinese Ambassador to PakistanJiang Zaidong |
Bilateral relations between theIslamic Republic of Pakistan and thePeople's Republic of China (PRC) were established in 1950, when theDominion of Pakistan was among the first countries to sever diplomatic relations with theRepublic of China (ROC)government in favour of recognizing the PRC as the legitimate "China". Since then, relations between the two countries have been extremely cordial for the last few decades, which are influenced by their similar geopolitical and mutual interests. Although both countries have vast cultural and religious differences, they have developed a special partnership. Both countries have placed considerable importance on the maintenance of the relationship between them,[1][2] and their regular exchanges of high-level visits have culminated in the establishment of various cooperative measures. China has provided economic, technical, and military assistance to Pakistan; both sides regard each other as close strategic allies.[3][4]
Bilateral relations have evolved from China's initial policy of neutrality to an extensive partnership driven primarily by Pakistan's strategic importance. The two countries formally resolved all of their boundary disputes with theSino-Pakistan Agreement of 1963, and Chinese military assistance to Pakistan began in 1966; a strategic alliance was formed in 1972, and economic cooperation had begun in earnest by 1979. Consequently, China has become Pakistan's third-largest trading partner overall.[5][6] In 1986, Pakistani presidentMuhammad Zia-ul-Haq visited China to improve diplomatic relations, and Pakistan was one of only two countries – alongsideCuba – to offer crucial support to China in the aftermath of the1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. More recently, China has moved forward with an agreement to cooperate in improving thePakistani civil nuclear power sector.[7]
Maintaining close relations with China is also a central part ofPakistan's foreign policy. On the military front, thePeople's Liberation Army and thePakistan Armed Forces share a notably close relationship; China has supported Pakistan's position on theKashmir conflict,[8] while Pakistan has supported China's position onXinjiang,Tibet, theterritorial disputes in the South China Sea, theSino-Indian border dispute[9] and thepolitical status of Taiwan.[10] Military cooperation between the two sides has continued to increase significantly, with joint projects producing armaments ranging from fighter jets to guided missile frigates.[11] The overwhelming majority of Pakistan's arms imports are from China, and the country makes up the majority of China's arms exports.[12][13] Both countries have generally pursued a bilateral policy that focuses to strengthen their alliance in all areas.[14][15] While serving as China's main bridge to theMuslim world, Pakistan has also played an important role in closing the communication gap between China and theUnited States—namely through the1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China.[16] Recent rankings have described Pakistan as the country that is most under Chinese political influence.[17]
Pakistan has a long and strong relationship with China. The long-standing ties between the two countries have been mutually beneficial. A close identity of views and mutual interests remain the centre-point of bilateral ties. Since the 1962Sino-Indian War, Pakistan has supported China on most issues of importance to the latter, especially those related toTaiwan,Xinjiang, andTibet and other sensitive issues deemed by the West ashuman rights issues.[18]
The Chinese leadership has acknowledged Pakistan's steadfast support on key issues. Pakistan helped China in reestablishing formal ties with the West, where they helped make possible the1972 Nixon visit to China.[16] Pakistan has collaborated with China in extensive military and economic projects, seeing both as counterweights to an Indian-Western alliance. Pakistan has also served as a conduit for China's influence in the Muslim world.
China also has a consistent record of supporting Pakistan in regional issues. Pakistan's military depends heavily onChinese armaments, and joint projects of both economic and militaristic importance are ongoing. China has supplied blueprints to support Pakistan's nuclear program.[19]
Amin argues that the basis of the Sino-Pak entente from its beginning has been "a mutual need to pool together resources to contain perceived Indian aspirations to hegemony over South Asia".[20] He continues: "Both China and Pakistan regard the entente as necessary to maintain a balance of power in the subcontinent favourable to themselves against an India that is believed by both Chinese and Pakistani strategists to be an expansionist power that occupies land regarded as properly belonging to Beijing and Islamabad respectively, and that is intent on expanding further".[20]
Buddhist monks from the area of what is nowKhyber Pakhtunkhwa region of Pakistan were involved in theSilk Road transmission of Buddhism toHan dynasty China. The Han dynasty'sProtectorate of the Western Regions bordered theKushan Empire.Faxian travelled in what is now modern-day Pakistan.[citation needed]
During World War II, theHui Muslimimam Da Pusheng (Chinese:达浦生) toured the Middle East and South Asia to confront Japanese propagandists in Muslim countries and denounce their "invasion" to the Islamic world.[21] Misinformation on the war was spread in the Islamic Middle Eastern nations by Japanese agents. In response, at the World Islamic Congress in Hejaz, Imam Du openly confronted fake Muslim Japanese agents and exposed them as non-Muslims. Japan's history of imperialism was explained by Du to his fellow Muslims.Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the future founder of Pakistan, met with Imam Du. TheChinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War received a pledge of support from Jinnah.[22] The Hindu leadersTagore andGandhi and Muslim Jinnah both discussed the war with the Chinese Muslim delegation under Ma Fuliang while in Turkey Presidentİsmet İnönü also met the delegation.[23] Gandhi and Jinnah met with the Hui Ma Fuliang and his delegation as they denounced Japan.[24]
The Chinese communists defeated the Nationalists in theChinese Civil War. On 1 October 1949,CCP chairmanMao Zedong announced the founding of the People's Republic of China. Pakistan recognized the new Chinese government on 4 January 1950, becoming the first Muslim country to do so.[25] Diplomatic relations between Pakistan and China were established on 21 May 1951. While initially ambivalent towards the idea of a Communist country on its borders, Pakistan hoped that China would serve as a counterweight to Indian influence.India had recognised China a year before, and Indian Prime Minister Nehru also hoped for closer relations with the Chinese. In 1956, Pakistani Prime MinisterHuseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Chinese PremierZhou Enlai signed the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan, marking closer bilateral ties.
With escalating border tensions leading to the1962 Sino-Indian war, China and Pakistan aligned with each other in a joint effort to counter India and the Soviet Union as both have border disputes with India. One year after China's border war with India, Pakistan and China signed theSino-Pakistan Agreement. The agreement resulted in China and Pakistan each withdrawing from about 1,900 square kilometres (750 square miles) of territory, and a boundary on the basis of the 1899 British Note to China as modified by Lord Curzon in 1905.
Geo-political considerations drew China and Pakistan close at a time when Pakistan was a member of two explicitly anti-communist alliances, CENTO and SEATO.[26] Since then, the informal alliance that initially began as mutual opposition towards India has grown into a lasting relationship that has benefited both nations on the diplomatic, economic and military frontiers. Along with diplomatic support, Pakistan served as a conduit for China to open up to the West.[27] China has in turn provided extensive economic aid and political support to Pakistan.
Since the two sides established their "all-weather diplomatic relations", there have been frequent exchanges between the two countries' leadership and peoples. For example, former Chinese PremierZhou Enlai received warm welcomes in all of his four visits to Pakistan. When Zhou died in 1976, then-Pakistani Ambassador to China rushed to theChinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs at 8 in the morning without appointment. Upon arriving at the ministry, the ambassador cried due to his grief in front of Chinese diplomats. In 2004, a road in Pakistani capitalIslamabad leading to the Diplomatic Enclave was named "Zhou Enlai Road". It is the first road in Pakistan that is named after foreign leaders. On 27 May 1976, thenChinese Communist Party (CCP) chairmanMao Zedong, aged 83, received his last foreign guest Pakistani presidentZulfiqar Ali Bhutto despite his critical illness, 105 days before his death.[28]
Pakistan's military initially depended almost entirely on American armaments and aid, which was increased during the covert U.S. support of Islamic militants in theSoviet–Afghan War. The U.S. under PresidentRichard Nixon supported Pakistan in the 1971Bangladesh Liberation War.[29] During the simultaneousBangladesh Genocide, alongside the U.S. and other nations, China helped to suppress reports of the massacres committed by Pakistan.[30][31] However, the period following the Soviet withdrawal and thedissolution of the Soviet Union led indirectly to the increasing realignment of the U.S. with the previously pro-Soviet India. ThePressler Amendment in 1990 suspended all American military assistance and any new economic aid amidst concerns that Pakistan was attempting to develop a nuclear weapon.[32] Given the support that Pakistan had given them during the War in Afghanistan, many Pakistanis saw this as a betrayal that sold out Pakistani interests in favour of India. This belief was further strengthened as India had developed a nuclear weapon without significant American opposition, and Pakistan felt obligated to do the same. Consequently, the primarily geopolitical alliance between Pakistan and China has since 1990 branched out into military and economic cooperation, due to Pakistan's belief that the U.S. influence and support in the region should be counterbalanced by the Chinese.
Since theSeptember 11 attacks, Pakistan has increased the scope of Chinese influence and support by agreeing to a number of military projects, combined with extensive economic support and investment from the Chinese.[33] With the U.S.-ledWar in Afghanistan, there is a general sentiment in Pakistan to adopt a foreign policy which favours China over the United States.[34] Washington has been accused deserting Pakistan in favour of a policy that favours stronger relations with India, while Pakistan sees China as a more reliable ally over the long term.[35]
TheFive Principles of Peaceful Coexistence are part of China-Pakistan foreign policy discourse, and in April 2005 these principles were codified in the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Good Neighborly Relations signed between the two countries.[36]
On 22 May 2013, Chinese PremierLi Keqiang's airplane was escorted by six JF-17 Thunder jets, jointly developed by the two countries, as it entered Pakistani airspace.[37] The premier was also received by both Pakistani president and prime minister upon his arrival at the airport. On 20 April 2015, Chinese leader and Communist Party General SecretaryXi Jinpingvisited Pakistan as his firstforeign visit of the year, also the first by aparamount leader in 9 years. Before his arrival, he published an article praising the friendship on Pakistani newspapers likeDaily Jang. The Chinese leader compared visiting Pakistan with visiting his brother's home.[38] Like previous visit by Premier Li, the airplane was escorted by 8 JF-17 Thunder jets. Xi was given a grand welcome upon his arrival at Noor Khan airbase, a 21-gun salute and guard of honour was presented to him.[39]
When I was young, I heard many touching stories about Pakistan and the friendship between our two countries. To name just a few, I learned that the Pakistani people were working hard to build their beautiful country, and that Pakistan opened an air corridor for China to reach out to the world and supported China in restoring its lawful seat in the United Nations. The stories have left me with a deep impression. I look forward to my upcoming state visit to Pakistan.
— Xi Jinping,General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party andPresident of China before his 2015 visit to Pakistan,[40]
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In February 2022, Prime MinisterImran Khan's presence at opening ceremony of2022 Winter Olympics,[41] Beijing declared support for Pakistan on theKashmir conflict, Khan also expressed his commitment to theOne-China Policy.[42]
After 3 Chinese citizens killed in theUniversity of Karachi bombing in April 2022, Pakistani presidentArif Alvi, PMShehbaz Sharif, foreign ministerBilawal Bhutto and PTI leader Imran Khan visited to the Chinese embassy where they expressed condolences to the Chinese side over the deaths of the teachers, and strongly condemned the attack.[43][44][45][46] In October 2024, during a seminar in Islamabad, Chinese ambassador to PakistanJiang Zaidong raised concern overattacks targeting Chinese workers in the country, calling their frequency "unacceptable" and a risk towards further funding of the Belt and Road Initiative. This had come after a bombing targeting Chinese engineers in Karachi earlier in the month, as well as an attack targeting Dasu Dam workers in March.[47]
See alsoUyghur terrorism in Pakistan
In July 2019, Pakistan was one of 50 countries that backedChina's policies in Xinjiang, signing a joint letter to the UNHRC commending China's "remarkable achievements in the field of human rights", claiming "Now safety and security has returned to Xinjiang and the fundamental human rights of people of all ethnic groups there are safeguarded.[48][49] In November 2019, Pakistan was one of 54 countries that signed a joint statement supporting China's Xinjiang policies.[50] In June 2020, Pakistan was one of 53 countries that backed theHong Kong national security law at theUnited Nations.[51]
There are strong military ties between China and Pakistan.[52] This alliance between two neighbouring East-South Asian nations is significant geopolitically. The strong military ties primarily aim to counter regionalIndian andAmerican influence, and was also to repelSoviet influence in the area. In recent years this relationship has strengthened through ongoing military projects and agreements between Pakistan and China.
According toStockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Pakistan is China's biggest arms buyer, counting for nearly 63% of Chinese arms exports.[53] According to SIPRI, 81% of Pakistan's arms imports between 2019 and 2024 came from China.[12] Since 1962, China has been a steady source of military equipment to thePakistani Army, helping establish ammunition factories, providing technological assistance and modernising existing facilities.[54]
China and Pakistan are involved in several projects to enhance military and weaponry systems, which include the joint development of theJF-17 Thunder fighter aircraft,[55]K-8 Karakorum advancetraining aircraft, a tailor-made training aircraft for thePakistan Air Force based on the Chinese domesticHongdu L-15,space technology,AWACS systems,Al-Khalid tanks, which China granted license production and tailor-made modifications based on the initial Chinese Type 90 and/or MBT-2000. The Chinese has designed tailor-made advanced weapons for Pakistan, making it a strong military power in the South Asian region. The armies have a schedule for organising joint military exercises.[56]
China is the largest investor in Pakistan'sGwadar Deep Sea Port, which is strategically located at the mouth of theStrait of Hormuz.[57] It is viewed warily by both the U.S. and India as a possible launchpad for theChinese Navy, giving them the ability to launch submarines and warships in the Indian Ocean. China has recently pledged to invest nearly 43 billion US dollars.[58][59]
In 2008, Pakistan had purchased military equipment from China for an improved quality of defence arsenal and force to fight the constant attack from foreign militants.[60] This relationship still continues nine years later when Pakistan Army imported Chinese-built Low to Medium Altitude Air Defence System (LOMADS)LY-80 for its air defence system.[61]
If you love China, love Pakistan too.
In the past, China has played a major role in the development of Pakistan's nuclear infrastructure, especially when increasingly stringent export controls inWestern countries made it difficult for Pakistan to acquire plutonium and uranium enriching equipment from elsewhere such as the Chinese help in building theKhushab reactor, which plays a key role in Pakistan's production of plutonium. A subsidiary of theChina National Nuclear Corporation contributed in Pakistan's efforts to expand its uranium enrichment capabilities by providing 5,000 custom made ring magnets, which are a key component of the bearings that facilitate the high-speed rotation of centrifuges. China has also provided technical and material support in the completion of theChashma Nuclear Power Complex and plutonium reprocessing facility, which was built in the mid-1990s.[63]
On 26 January 2015, Chinese Foreign MinisterWang Yi during a conclusion of a two-day visit ofRaheel Sharif toBeijing called Pakistan China's "irreplaceable, all-weather friend". Sharif also metYu Zhengsheng,Meng Jianzhu andXu Qiliang.[64] On 19 April 2015, China concluded sale of eight conventionalsubmarines worth $5bn, the biggest arms sale by China in its history.[65] The vessels are supplied by the China Shipbuilding Trading Company, and financed to Pakistan at a lowinterest rate.[55] Pakistan and China also conducted joint maritime exercise dubbed as "Sea Guardian 2" in July, 2022.[66] In late April 2023, the Chinese defence ministerLi Shangfu facilitated a meeting by Pakistan army chief GeneralSyed Asim Munir in Beijing.[67] The deepening of military ties between Islamabad and Beijing had been worrisome toWestern countries.[68]
During the2025 India–Pakistan conflict, 44 Chinese satellites were made available to Pakistan, according to two Islamabad-based Western diplomats involved in the May ceasefire negotiations and a Pakistani security official, all of whom spoke on condition of anonymity. The diplomats suggested that Chinese satellite and signals intelligence may have assisted Pakistan in tracking Indian troop and missile movements during the aerial engagements, potentially providing a real-time operational advantage.[69] A research group under India'sMinistry of Defence confirmed the same.[70][71] According to Indian analysts, China assisted Pakistan in reorganizing its radar and air defense systems to better detect Indian troop and weapon deployments, and also helped adjust its satellite coverage over India during the 15-day period between the 22 AprilPahalgam Attack—which killed 26 mostly Indian tourists—and the start of hostilities in May.[70]
China, Pakistan and Afghanistan have coordinated to increase regional stability.[55] Former Foreign MinisterWang Yi has said that China intends to useXinjiang as a base of economic development for the region, increasing security and facilitating trade.[55]
China's leadership appreciated Pakistan's fight against terrorism with a special mention of eliminatingal-Qaeda,Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and theTurkistan Islamic Party (Chinese called East Turkistan Islamic Movement, ETIM), added the ISPR statement.[72]Baloch terrorists especially Majeed Brigade, a faction of theBaloch liberation Army (BLA), launched many attacks on the Chinese interest in Pakistan,[73][74] China urged for increasing its security presence in Pakistan to better against terrorism.[75]
Pakistan has been one of China's major trade partners.[76] According to China's custom statistics the bilateral trade volume for the calendar year 2017 crossed theUS$20 billion mark for the first time. In 2017 China's exports to Pakistan grew by 5.9% to reach $18.25 billion whereas Pakistan's exports to China fell by 4.1% to $1.83 billion.[77][78]
Pakistan strongly supported China's successful 2007 application to join theSouth Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) as an observer.[79]
Economic trade between Pakistan and China has been recently increasing, and afree trade agreement has been signed. Military and technological transactions continue to dominate the economic relationship between the two nations, and China has pledged to increase their investment in Pakistan's economy and infrastructure.[80]
In 2011 China Kingho Group cancelled a $19 billion mining deal because of security concerns.[81]
On 26 April 2014,China Mobile announced $1 billion of investment inPakistan in telecommunication infrastructure and training of its officials within a period of three years.[82] The announcement came a day after China Mobile subsidyZong emerged as the highest bidder in the 3G auction, claiming a 10 MHz3G-band licence, qualifying for the4G licence.[83]
On 22 April 2015, according toChina Daily, China released its first overseas investment project under theBelt and Road Initiative for developing a hydropower station nearJhelum.[84]
At the time of2022–2023 Pakistani economic crisis, China was the only country that continues to provide loans. China has lent Pakistan more than 2 billion US dollars to prop up its collapsing economy.[85][86]
On May 6, 2023, Pakistan's Foreign MinisterBilawal Bhutto Zardari met his Chinese counterpartQin Gang at the foreign ministry inIslamabad. China reiterated its interest to end the political crisis in Pakistan after Imran Khan was ousted in April 2022. The Chinese official expressed hope that "the political forces in Pakistan will build consensus, uphold stability and more effectively address domestic and external challenges so it can focus on growing the economy." China had provided a $1 billion Chinese SAFE deposit and a roughly $1.4 billion commercial loan maturing in June 2023. Pakistan's huge debt obligations totaling $77.5 billion, particularly towards China andSaudi Arabia had reached record levels in 2022/23.[87]
In March 2025, China rolled over a $2 billion loan to Pakistan as part of efforts to stabilize the country's economy. This move supported Pakistan's financial recovery after receiving a $7 billion IMF bailout in September 2024. The loan rollover was crucial as Pakistan faced a significant repayment schedule, needing to pay over $22 billion in external debt for the fiscal year 2025, including nearly $13 billion in bilateral deposits.[88]
The CPEC will connect Pakistan with China and the Central Asian countries with highway connectingKashgar toKhunjerab andGwadar.[89]Gwadar Port in southern Pakistan will serve as the trade nerve centre for China, as most of its trade especially that of oil will be done through the port, which is operated by the China Overseas Port Holding Company, a state-owned Chinese company.[90] Currently, sixty per cent of China's oil must be transported by ship from thePersian Gulf to the only commercial port in China, Shanghai, a distance of more than 16,000 kilometres. The journey takes two to three months, during which time the ships are vulnerable to pirates, bad weather, political rivals and other risks. Using Gwadar Port instead would reduce the distance and possibly the cost.[91]
The plan seeks to build on a market presence already established by Chinese enterprises, Haier in household appliances, ChinaMobile andHuawei in telecommunications and China Metallurgical Group Corporation (MCC) in mining and minerals. In other cases, such as textiles and garments, cement and building materials, fertiliser and agricultural technologies (among others) it calls for building the infrastructure and a supporting policy environment to facilitate fresh entry. According to the plan, a key element in this is the creation of industrial parks, or special economic zones, would be done with the provision of water, perfect infrastructure, sufficient supply of energy and the capacity of self-service power.[92]
But the main thrust of the plan actually lies in agriculture, contrary to the image of CPEC as a massive industrial and transport undertaking, involving power plants and highways. The plan acquires its greatest specificity, and lays out the largest number of projects and plans for their facilitation, in agriculture. For agriculture, the plan outlines an engagement that runs from one end of the supply chain all the way to the other. From provision of seeds and other inputs, like fertiliser, credit and pesticides, Chinese enterprises will also operate their own farms, processing facilities for fruits and vegetables and grain. Logistics companies will operate a large storage and transportation system for agrarian produce, as stated by the plan inDawn.[92]
The other common investment is expected in information and technology, a full system of monitoring and surveillance will be built in cities from Peshawar to Karachi, with 24-hour video recordings on roads and busy marketplaces for law and order.[93] A national fibre-opticbackbone will be built for the country not only for internet traffic, but also terrestrial distribution ofbroadcast TV, which will cooperate with Chinese media in the "dissemination of Chinese cultures".[92]
As part of economic cooperation between the two countries, there has been a rise of Pakistani interest in learningMandarin, while Chinese businesses and entities have taken greater interest in understanding Pakistani customs.[94]
In the2024 Men's Asian Champions Trophy final, the Pakistani players who were spectating the match supported China against India despite having lost to them in the semifinal.[95]
"Pakistan is China's Israel"
The support that China and Pakistan give each other is considered significant in global diplomacy, and has been compared toIsrael–United States relations andRussia–Serbia relations. When confronted by US officials about Beijing's uncompromising support for Pakistan, Chinese GeneralXiong Guangkai famously said, "Pakistan is China's Israel."[96] Andrew Small, the author ofThe China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics, characterizes this remark as "part explanation, part sarcastic jibe, delivered by (China's) military intelligence chief after one too many meetings with US counterparts on the subject."[97]
According to aPew survey of Pakistani public opinion in 2010, 84 per cent of respondents said they had a favourable view of China and 16 per cent had a favourable view of the United States.[98] Similarly, the Chinese state-run media has portrayed Pakistan in a favourable light in regional issues. In 2013, this figure increased to 90% of Pakistanis having a favourable view of China.[99] As of at least early 2024, survey data continues to show high public approval in Pakistan for China.[100]: 111
Pakistan and China have long praised the close ties the two countries have with each other. Pakistani PresidentPervez Musharraf referred to China as Pakistan's "time-tested and all-weather friend", while in return Chinese leaderHu Jintao has referred to Pakistan as "a good friend and partner".[101] Some observers have noted these statements as occurring after Pakistani relations with the United States or India have become strained, such as afterOsama Bin Laden was killed by American forces without Pakistan's prior permission.[35]
In July 2013 thePew Research Center, as part of their Global Attitudes Project, declared Pakistan to have the most positive view of China in the world. According to the research, 81% of Pakistanis responded favourably to China. On the other hand, only 11% of Pakistanis had a favourable view of the United States, the lowest in the world.[102][103]
According to a 2014 poll by theBBC World Service, over 75% of Pakistanis view China's influence positively, with less than 15% expressing a negative view. Chinese citizens have been reported in similar polls as holding the third-most positive opinion of Pakistan's influence in the world, behind onlyIndonesia as well as Pakistan itself.[104] In March 2022, a poll coordinated byPalacký University Olomouc found that 73% of Chinese citizens held favourable views of Pakistan, placing it behind onlyRussia in that regard.[105]
Pakistan, with its strategic position, natural resources and warm-water ports, has long been an ally of Beijing. The Chinese see the south Asian state, the closest they have to a friend both in south Asia and in the Islamic world, as important to the security and development of their western, predominantly Muslim provinces, and as a useful aide in efforts to counter the influence of India. In recent years, links have grown closer.
A common quotation referring to China-Pakistan Friendship is, "A Friendship Higher than Himalayas, deeper than ocean, sweeter than honey, and stronger than steel."[107]
"[Pakistan] no longer try to maintain a middle ground between
China and the United States"
Dawn has reported that Pakistan's historically relationship with the U.S., the colonial nature of its administrative structure and theWestern orientation of most bureaucrats (with Western dual citizenship and degrees from Western universities) is one of the important challenging factors in bilateral relations.[109] In a memo titledPakistan's Difficult Choices, Pakistani MinisterHina Rabbani Khar argued that the instinct to preserve Pakistan's partnership with the United States would ultimately sacrifice the full benefits of the country's "real strategic" partnership with China.[108]
The author ofThe China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics concludes the book by connecting the bilateral relationship to broader themes in Chinese foreign policy. According to the author, on the one hand, Pakistan is both a Chinese pawn (against India) and platform for power projection, but there are limits to this approach. For instance, as Small notes, "Beijing's counterterrorism strategy has been essentially parasitic on the United States being a more important target for transnational militant groups than China. It's unclear how long that can last."[97][110]
if there were recriminations they were not made public. Indeed China's ties with Pakistan, which were established during Mao's rule and are based on shared hostility towards India, thrive on many common interests. A long history of secret deals between their two armies—overrides the problems with Islamic extremism.
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