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 China |  Nepal |
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The bilateral relations betweenChina andNepal are defined by theSino-Nepalese Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed on 28 April 1960, by the two countries. Though initially unenthusiastic, Nepal has been of late making efforts to increase trade and connectivity with China. Relations between Nepal and China got a boost when both countries solved all border disputes along theChina–Nepal border by signing the Sino-Nepal boundary agreement on 21 March 1960, making Nepal the first neighboring country of China to conclude a border treaty with China. The governments of both Nepal and China ratified the border treaty on 5 October 1961. From 1975 onward, Nepal has maintained a policy of balancing the competing influence of China and Nepal's southern neighborIndia, the only two neighbors of theHimalayan country after the accession of theKingdom of Sikkim into India in 1975.[1][2]
In recent years, China has been making an effort to gain entry intoSouth Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), and, Nepal has continuously backed and supported the proposal to include China as a member in the regional grouping. Since 1975, Sino-Nepalese relations have been close and grown significantly, with China overtaking India as the largest source of totalForeign direct investment (FDI) since 2015.[3] Based on the amount of remittance to Nepal sent by Nepalese migrants working in India (amounting to nearly $1.021 billion per year), the government of Nepal estimate that there are around 1 million Nepalese migrant workers in India as of 2021,[4] while the number ofNepalis in China is minuscule (3,500 in Mainland and 15,950 in Hong Kong)[5] as of 2017.
The relationship betweenNepal andTibet are centuries old, with theSherpa people, theGurung people and theThakali people ofNepal sharing close linguistic, cultural, marital, and, ethnic ties with theTibetan people ofTibet.
Around 600–650 CE, Nepalese PrincessBhrikuti (Bal-mo-bza' Khri-btsun in Tibetan) marriedSongtsän Gampo, the earliest known Emperor of Tibet.[6][7] PrincessBhrikuti, as a part of her dowry, is widely believed to have brought Buddhists relics andThangkas to Tibet, and therefore, is attributed for establishing Buddhism as the Royal religion in Tibet. Bhrikuti is usually represented asGreen Tara in Tibetaniconography. The Red Palace (Mar-po-ri Pho-drang) on Marpo Ri (Red Mountain) inLhasa, which was later rebuilt into the thirteen storeyPotala Palace by the FifthDalai Lama, was constructed byNewari craftsmen according to her wishes, who came to Tibet fromKathmandu with her, as a part of her dowry. She also instructed her craftsmen to construct the Tub-wang and other statues inSamye, the first Buddhistgompa in Tibet.[8] One of her craftsmen, Thro-wo, also carved the revered statue ofChenresig (Avalokiteshvara), Thungji Chen-po rang-jung nga-ldan.[citation needed]
During theTang dynasty, the Chinese envoyWang Xuance led an army of Nepalese and Tibetans to defeat an usurper in the IndianKingdom of Magadha. In 1260 CE during theYuan dynasty, Nepalese craftsmenAraniko, on the decree of Chinese/Mongolian EmperorKublai Khan, traveled toShangdu and built the White Stupa ofMiaoying Temple in Beijing, which was the largest structure inBeijing at that time.[9] Taking almost ten years (1279–1288 CE) to complete, the Stupa better known as White Dagoba, is still standing today and is considered to be one of the oldest Buddhist Stupa in China.[citation needed]
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In 1789, the Tibetan government stopped the usage of Nepalese coins for trade in Tibet, citing purity concerns over the copper and the silver coins minted by the Nepalese government,[10] which led to the firstTibet-Nepal War.[11] A resounding victory of Gorkha forces over Tibetans in the first Tibet-Nepal War left theLhasa Durbar with no choice but to ask for assistance from theQing Emperor inPeking which led to the firstSino-Nepalese War. In the immediate aftermath of the Sino-Nepalese War (1789–1792), Nepal was forced to sign the 'Treaty of Betrawati'[12] which stipulated that the Government of Nepal was required to make payment oftribute toQing court in Peking once every five years, after the defeat of Gurkha forces by theQing army in Tibet.[12]
The 'Treaty of Betrawati' signed by Nepal and Tibet on October 2, 1792, stipulated that both Nepal and Tibet recognize the suzerainty of theQing EmperorJiaqing, and further, stated that theQing court would be obliged to help Nepal defend against any external aggression.[13] However, during theAnglo-Nepalese War (1814–16), the Qing Emperor refused the Nepalese government's request to provide support to Nepalese forces, and, the latter's defeat led to the establishment of theBritish Empire in India.[1] Then after, Nepal initiated a policy of balancing the influence ofImperial China andBritish India.[1] Through the tenth quinquennial mission to China (1837), under the leadership ofChautariya Pushkar Shah, the Nepalese government again requested theDaoguang Emperor court to either send troops or a subsidy of Twenty million rupees to oppose the British. However, the Nepalese delegation was said to have been met with a stern refusal of its petition for monetary support, and instructed by the Qing court to stop further hostilities against the British.[14]
Soon after Nepal's defeat in theAnglo-Nepalese war, from 1840 onward, Tibetan government again stopped the use of Nepalese coins for trade.[citation needed] In an attempt to preserve the lucrative coin export business and trade advantages, the Nepalese Kingdom, under the leadership ofJung Bahadur Rana again invaded Tibet in 1855 during the secondNepalese-Tibetan War, and raided theTashilhunpo Monastery inShigatse, home to thePanchen Lama at that time. The invading Nepalese army was ordered to vacate the occupiedTibetan territories by theQing Court, which was rapidly losing its hold over frontier territories due to turmoil inside China proper. Nepal's refusal to hand back the control ofTashilhunpo Monastery led to the secondSino-Nepalese War which resulted in a stalemate; a major setback for Tibetans, ultimately culminating into theTreaty of Thapathali on March 24, 1856.[15] Through theTreaty of Thapathali, Nepal expressed commitment to help Tibet in the event of foreign aggression while authorities in Tibet were obliged to pay the Nepalese government a sum of Nepalese Rupees 10,000 every year.[1] Further, Nepalese government stopped paying tribute to the rulers in Beijing after signing theTreaty of Thapathali. The withdrawal of Nepalese forces from Tibetan areas adjacent to Tibet-Nepal border in 1856 provided theQing court with the opportunity to firmly tighten its grip in and around Lhasa and throughout Tibet. Soon after theTreaty of Thapathali, theQing court also issued an edict which among other dispositions stipulated the introduction of a new silver coinage in Tibet, struck in the name of theQianlong Emperor, the then ruler of China,[16] while at the same time, Nepalese coins were completely forbidden inTibet from then onward.[17]
During the late 19th century (1899–1901), after the destabilization of Qing Imperial Court due to theBoxer Rebellion, theBritish Raj as the unchallenged and the dominant power in the sub-continent exerted total control over China's frontier regions including Nepal. Left with no support from the weakened Qing Court, in the immediate aftermath of Qing Empire's defeat at the hands of an 8-nation alliance, Nepal aligned itself with theBritish Raj in India and supported theBritish expedition to Tibet.[1] When China sought to claim Tibet in 1910, Nepal sided with Tibet and Britain and broke relations with China after Tibet drove Chinese forces out in 1911.[1]
The people-to-people ties between Nepalese and Tibetan groups has been affected since 1950, after theannexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China resulting in the regulated border between Nepal and Tibet (as a part of China). Despite the fluctuating political scenarios in Nepal's neighborhood and withinNepal itself, the influence ofBuddhism still remains strong in the day-to-day life of Nepalese people living in theHimalayan Region. The Buddhist monarchy in The Kingdom of Lo (Upper Mustang), previously a part of theTibetan Empire but now in Nepal, was terminated only in 2008.[18] The area ofLo Manthang, however, still remains quasi-restricted to foreigners.[citation needed]
Nepal's Diplomatic relations with China has a long history. One of the famous and most talked about result of such diplomacy is the introduction of pagoda architecture to China by Nepal. In 1260 CE during theYuan dynasty, Nepalese craftsmenAraniko, on the decree of EmperorKublai Khan, traveled toShangdu and built the a stupa better known as White Dagoba in Beijing, which was the largest structure inBeijing at that time.[19] This Stupa built on pagoda architecture was a milestone for the introduction of the architecture.[20] The other result is the introduction of Spinach to China. It is said that Spinach was introduced to China via Nepal.[21] Spinach seeds were first gifted by Narendra Dev, a king of Licchavi Dynasty of Nepal to Emperor Taizong of Tang.[22][23]
Nepal was historically influenced by India, including the period 1842 to 1945.[24] As the strength of the People's Republic of China grew, Nepal developed greater room for diplomatic maneuver.[24]
However, the 1950 military occupation of Tibet by thePeople's Liberation Army raised significant concerns of security and territorial integrity in Nepal, drawing Nepal into a close relationship with extensive economic and military ties with Republic of India.[25][26][27] China ordered restrictions on the entry of Nepalese pilgrims and contacts with Tibet. The1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship that had established a close Indo-Nepalese relationship on commerce, and foreign relations, was increasingly resented in Nepal, which began seeing it as an encroachment of its sovereignty and an unwelcome extension of Indian influence; the deployment of an Indian military mission in Nepal in the 1950s and unabated migration of millions of bihari Indians into Nepal's Terai region increased these concerns.[26]
In 1955, Nepal restored diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China and exchanged residentambassadors by 1960. In 1956, both nations signed a new treaty terminating theTreaty of Thapathali of 1856 and Nepal recognized Tibet as a part of China.[1] In 1960, Nepal and China signed a boundary settlement agreement and a separate 'Sino-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship'.[28] Nepal also began supportingthe change of China's seat in the United Nations.[1]
In December 1960, Nepalese KingMahendra executed a coup and dismissed the parliamentary government of Nepal.[24] India supported the deposed parliamentary government, and blockaded Nepal in fall 1962.[24] Soon afterwards, theSino-Indian war broke out, and Indian losses to China made it unwilling to risk further confrontation with Nepal; India lifted the blockade.[24]
From the early 1960s until 1973, the United StatesCentral Intelligence Agency trained and financed Tibetan guerillas operating in opposition to China from two districts in Nepal.[29] The United States ended its support for these guerillas following the1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China, and Nepal underKing Birendra suppressed the guerillas.[29]
In the late 1970s after the accession ofKingdom of Sikkim by India, King Birendra proposed Nepal as a "zone of peace" between India and China and in the 1980s, Nepal began importing Chinese weaponry.[1][2][25] When theUnited States,United Kingdom and India refused to supply arms to the regime of KingGyanendra of Nepal, who had assumed direct rule to suppress theMaoist insurgency during theNepalese civil war (1996–2006), China responded by dispatching arms to Nepal, in spite of the ideological affinity of the Maoists with China.[30][31] After the peace process andnational elections in Nepal in 2008, the new Maoist-led government announced its intentions to scrap Nepal's 1950 treaty with India, indicating a stronger move towards closer ties with China.[30][32][33]
Nepal strongly supported China's successful 2007 application as an observer to SAARC.[34]: 192
Nepal has been a major beneficiary of China's increased focus on developingsouthwest China, and Nepal-China trade increased by a factor of five from 2009 to 2012.[35] Nepal has been a beneficiary of increased Chinese foreign aid to south Asia since the mid-2000s, including Chinese financing for a railway fromKathmandu toLhasa.[34]: 198 In 2021, theChina International Development Cooperation Agency pledged to finance development projects in fifteen northern district of Nepal through the "Northern Region Border Development Programme".[36]
China'sBelt and Road Initiative has strengthened relations with Nepal.[37]: 215 As of 2021, Nepal has receivedUS$2,000,000,000 under the initiative.[38] The China-Nepal-India Economic Corridor (CNIEC) was proposed by China in April 2018.[39] It is an extension of the agreed upon China-NepalTrans-Himalayan Multi-dimensional Connectivity Network into India. While China and Nepal have shown favourable reactions towards CNIEC, India is "indifferent".[40] This indifference is postulated to stem from CNIEC being a part of the BRI, China's growing influence over Nepal, and an end to "India's monopoly over Nepal's transit points and Nepal's attempt to end its dependency on India".[40] Critics have described Nepal'sPokhara Airport and the Trans-Himalayan Multi-dimensional Connectivity Network, as potential "debt traps."[41][42][43][44][45]
Effective 1 December 2024, China eliminatedtariffs for goods imported from all of the countries that the United Nations categorizes asleast developed and with which China has diplomatic relations, including Nepal.[46]
TheAraniko Highway was built in the 1960s with help from the Chinese on an older yak track.[47] They also planned to expand the road in 2012, but keeping the route open was made more difficult by landslides from monsoons.[47] The road became a conduit for a large amount of trade between China and Nepal, and also for some trade between India and China when it is open.[47]
In 2007–08, China began construction of a 770-kilometrerailway connecting the Tibetan capital ofLhasa with the Nepalese border town ofKhasa, connecting Nepal to China's wider national railway network.[48] In a meeting between Chinese and Nepalese officials on 25 April 2008, the Chinese delegation announced the intention to extend the Qingzang railway toZhangmu (Nepalese: Khasa) on the Nepalese border. Nepal had requested that the railway be extended to enable trade and tourism between the two nations. On the occasion of the Nepalese premier's visit to China it was reported that construction will be completed by 2020. The section Lhasa-Shigatse opened in August 2014.
An air route exists between Lhasa and Kathmandu.[35]
In June 2018, China and Nepal announced an agreement to connectXigazê,Tibet Autonomous Region with Kathmandu, via a new railroad.[49]
In September 2018, Nepalesecommerce ministry official Rabi Shankar Sainju announced that China had granted Nepal access to the ports ofTianjin,Shenzhen,Lianyungang, andZhanjiang, as well as land ports atLanzhou,Lhasa andXigatse.[50] Access to Chinese ports reduces Nepal's dependence onIndia for commerce, a dependence that was highlighted by the2015 Nepal blockade.[50][51]
In November 2023, adry port was opened at theKorala mountain pass.[52][38]
In November 2019, after Nepal's parliament formally approved a map depicting Kalapani within Nepal, per Indian media sources Nepal's Survey Department reported of Chinese encroachment on 36 hectares in four districts of Nepal (Sankhuwasabha,Rasuwa,Sindhupalchowk andHumla) and that there was a further risk of losing several hundred hectares of land.[53][54]
Indian media sources also reported that Nepal Agriculture department's documented massive road development projects in the Tibet Autonomous Region that have caused Sumjung, Kam Khola andArun rivers to change their course and expand China's boundary into northern territories of Nepal, and warned that even more Nepalese land would be encroached by the Chinese if the rivers continue to change course. Nepalese government later on officially released a statement stating, "Why would the Agriculture department release report related to the boundaries of Nepal?" Indian media sources also said that China could set up Border Observation Post of Armed Police in these encroached territories.[55][56]
In May 2020, Chinese media, callingMount Everest (known in Nepal as Sagarmatha)[57] as Mount Qomolangma claimed it as part of Chinese territory, sparking outrage among Nepalese citizens. In 1961,King Mahendra, the then ruler of Nepal, had announced that Mount Everest falls squarely inside Nepal.[58] Opposition leaders have criticizedPrime Minister Oli for not raising up the Sino-Nepal border issue.[59]
In September 2020, Nepalese media reported that a border pillar inHumla District of Nepal was missing, and China had constructed 11 buildings 2 kilometers inside Nepalese territory. This was supported by Deputy CDO of Humla and Provincial MLA Jeevan Bahadur Shahi, who collected proofs by making days-long visits and letting them go public.[60] He got warning and threat from Chinese side in return.[61] When the Chief District Officer of Nepal went to inspect the place based on concerns raised by locals, he was told by Chinese security officials that the buildings were within Chinese territory which extends one kilometre further south from where the buildings are located.[62][63] In the same month, Nepalese foreign ministry confirmed that buildings are constructed one kilometre inside of Chinese border.[64]
The government of Nepal tends to deny or downplay any territorial disputes with China for fear of losing economic favors.[65] In November 2020, the government of Nepal refuted the accusation from Jeevan Bahadur Shahi. Sewa Lamsal of Nepal's foreign ministry said land encroachment by Chinese construction was untrue. Both the Chinese and Nepalese governments denied there were any territorial disputes between the two countries.[64] In October 2024,The New York Times reported that the Nepalese government documented border infringements by China but subsequently censored the report.[65]
In June 2020, Nepal was one of 53 countries that backed theHong Kong national security law at theUnited Nations.[66] In October 2022, Nepal voted against UN Human Rights Council debate on human rights violations in China's Xinjiang region.[67][68] Nepal's take on this was that the issues related to Xinjiang were not related to human rights but rather about counterterrorism and a move against separatism.[69][70]
Tibetan Nepalese have reportedly been pressured by Chinese border security not to display images of the14th Dalai Lama.[65]
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)Although costs have not been finalized, estimates suggest that the project could cost around $4.8 billion USD for the Nepal segment alone. Nepal will not be able to shoulder such a cost, as it exceeds 10% of its GDP. That means a major chunk of the loans will come from China. This is how projects financed by China turn into debt traps. Developing countries that struggle to pay interest are eventually forced to hand over their infrastructure to Beijing.
The new railway line will connect the Gyirong trading port in the city of Xigaze in Tibet with the Nepali capital Kathmandu, Vice-Foreign Minister Kong Xuanyou was quoted as saying by the China Daily, after the two meetings.
The last blockade, which followed the launch of BRI and Xi's projection of greater Chinese power abroad, resulted in Nepal seeking to bolster connectivity with China
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