Chili peppers, also spelledchile orchilli (from Classical Nahuatlchīlli[ˈt͡ʃiːlːi]ⓘ), are varieties ofberry-fruit plants from thegenusCapsicum, which are members of the nightshade familySolanaceae, cultivated for theirpungency (spicy heat). They are used as aspice to add pungency in many cuisines.Capsaicin and the relatedcapsaicinoids give chili peppers their intensity when ingested orapplied topically. Chili peppers exhibit a range of heat and flavors. This diversity is the reason behind the availability of different types ofchili powder, each offering its own taste and heat level.
Chili peppers originated in Central or South America and were first cultivated in Mexico. European explorers brought chili peppers back to theOld World in the late 16th century as part of theColumbian Exchange, which led to the cultivation ofmultiple varieties across the world for food and traditional medicine. FiveCapsicum species have been widely cultivated:annuum,baccatum,chinense,frutescens, andpubescens.
Capsicum plants originated in modern-dayPeru andBolivia, and have been a part of human diets since about 7,500 BC.[1][2] They are one of the oldestcultivated crops in the Americas.[2] Chili peppers were cultivated in east-centralMexico some 6,000 years ago,[3][4] and independently across different locations in the Americas including highland Peru and Bolivia, central Mexico, and theAmazon.[5] They were among the firstself-pollinating crops cultivated in those areas.[6][2]
Peru has the highest diversity of cultivatedCapsicum; it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times.[7] The largest diversity of wildCapsicum peppers is consumed in Bolivia. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms:ulupicas, species with small round fruits includingC. eximium,C. cardenasii,C. eshbaughii, andC. caballeroi landraces; andarivivis with small elongated fruits includingC. baccatum var.baccatum andC. chacoense varieties.[7]
Illustration from the Japanese agricultural encyclopediaSeikei Zusetsu, 1804
The English word is from Classical Nahuatlchīlli with the same meaning.[8] The name of the plant is unrelated to that of the countryChile.[9] Whilepepper originally meant the genusPiper, notCapsicum, theOxford English Dictionary andMerriam-Webster record both usages.[10][11] The three primary spellings arechili (common in North America[12][13]),chile (Central America and parts of the US[14][15]) andchilli (United Kingdom and former British colonies[9][16][17]).
WhenChristopher Columbus and his crew reached the Caribbean, they were the first Europeans to encounterCapsicum fruits. They called them "peppers" because, likeblack pepper (Piper nigrum), which had long been known in Europe, they have a hot spicy taste unlike other foods.[18][19] Chilies were first brought back to Europe by the Spanish, who financed Columbus's voyages, at the start of the large-scale interchange of plants and culture between the New World and the Old World called theColumbian exchange. Chilies appear in Spanish records by 1493. UnlikePiper vines, which grow naturally only in thetropics, chilies could be grown intemperate climates. By the mid-1500s, they had become a common garden plant in Spain and were incorporated into numerous dishes. By 1526, they had appeared in Italy, in 1543 in Germany, and by 1569 in the Balkans, where they came to be processed intopaprika.[20][21]
The rapid introduction of chilies to Africa and Asia was likely throughPortuguese andSpanish traders in the 16th century, though the details are unrecorded. The Portuguese introduced them first to Africa and Arabia, and then to their colonies and trading posts in Asia, includingGoa,Sri Lanka, andMalacca. From there, chilies spread to neighboring regions in South Asia and western Southeast Asia via local trade and natural dispersal. Around the same time, the Spanish also introduced chilies to the Philippines, where they spread toMelanesia,Micronesia, and otherPacific Islands via their monopoly of theManila galleons. Their spread to East Asia in the late 16th century is less clear, but was likely also through local trade or through Portuguese and Spanish trading ports inCanton, China, andNagasaki,Japan.[22][23][24][25] The earliest known mention of the chili pepper in Chinese writing dates to 1591, though the pepper is thought to have entered the country in the 1570s.[26]
Chili peppers are the shiny, brightly coloured fruits of species ofCapsicum.[27][28] Botanically they areberries. The plants are small, 20 to 60 centimetres (7.9 to 23.6 in) depending on variety, making them suitable for growing in pots,greenhouses, or commercially inpolytunnels. The plants areperennial, provided they are protected from cold. The fruits can be green, orange, red, or purple, and vary in shape from round and knobbly to smooth and elongated. If the fruits are picked green and unripe, more flowers develop, yielding more fruit; fruits left on the plant can become hotter in taste, and acquire their ripe coloration, at the price of a reduced harvest.[27]
Ideal growing conditions for peppers include a sunny position with warm,loamy soil, ideally 21 to 29 °C (70 to 84 °F), that is moist but not waterlogged.[29] The seedsgerminate only when warm, close to 21 °C (70 °F).[27] The plants prefer warm conditions, but can tolerate temperatures down to 12 °C (54 °F); and are sensitive to cold.[27] The flowers canself-pollinate. However, at extremely high temperatures, 30 to 38 °C (86 to 100 °F), pollen loses viability, and its flowers are much less likely to result in fruit.[30] For flowering,Capsicum is a non-photoperiod-sensitive crop.[31]
Chilies are vulnerable to pests includingaphids, glasshousered spider mite, and glasshousewhitefly, all of which feed on plant sap.[27] Common diseases include grey mould caused byBotrytis cinerea; this rots the tissues and produces a brownish-grey mould on the surface.[27]
Harvested chilies may be used fresh, or dried, typically on the ground in hot countries, to make a variety of products. Drying enables chilies grown in temperate regions to be used in winter. For home use, chilies can be dried by threading them with cotton and hanging them up in a warm dry place to dry.[32]
Removing seeds and pith from dried chilies inSan Pedro Atocpan, Mexico
Smoke-dried chipotle
Products include whole dried chilies, chili flakes, andchili powder,[33] Fresh or dried chilies are used to makehot sauce, a liquidcondiment—usually bottled for commercial use—that adds spice to other dishes.[34] Dried chilies are used to makechili oil, cooking oil infused with chili.[35]
In 2024, world production of green chillies and peppers (as anyCapsicum orPimenta fruits) was 45 milliontonnes, with China accounting for 39% of the total and India with 12% (table).
Capsaicin, the principal molecule that gives chili its heat[41]
The substances that give chili peppers theirpungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically arecapsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively calledcapsaicinoids.[41][42] Pure capsaicin is ahydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature.[43] The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and depends on growing conditions. Water-stressed peppers usually produce stronger fruits. When ahabanero plant is stressed, for example by shortage of water, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.[44]
When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds withpain receptors in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to thebrainstem andthalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived.[45] However, birds are unable to perceive the hotness and so they can eat some of the hottest peppers.[46] The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported inScoville heat units (SHU), invented by American pharmacistWilbur Scoville in 1912. Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating.[47] Since the 1980s, spice heat has been assessed quantitatively byhigh-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), which measures the concentration of heat-producing capsaicinoids, typically with capsaicin content as the main measure.[48]
Capsaicin is produced by the plant as adefense against mammalian predators. A study suggests that by protecting against attack by ahemipteran bug, the risk of disease caused by aFusarium fungus carried by the insects is reduced.[49] As evidence, the study notes that peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungi on the plant's seeds.[49]
Thevolatile oil in chili peppers may cause skin irritation, requiring hand washing and care when touching the eyes or any sensitive body parts.[60] Consuming hot peppers may cause stomach pain,hyperventilation,sweating,vomiting, and symptoms possibly requiring hospitalization.[61]
Due to their uniquepungency (spicy heat), chili peppers constitute a crucial part of many cuisines around the world, particularly in Chinese (especially inSichuanese food), Mexican, Thai, Indian, Yoruba,New Mexican cuisine and many other South American, Caribbean and East Asian cuisines. In 21st-centuryAsian cuisine, chili peppers are commonly used across many regions.[66][67] Chili is a key ingredient in manycurries, providing the desired amount of heat; mild curries may be flavoured with many other spices, and may omit chili altogether.[68]
Chilies with a low capsaicin content can be cooked like bell peppers, for example stuffing and roasting them. Hotter varieties need to be handled with care to avoid contact with skin or eyes; washing does not efficiently remove capsaicin from skin. Chilies can be roasted over very hot coals or grilled for a short time, as they break up if overcooked.[69]
The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible, being mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruits. They are cooked asgreens in Filipino cuisine, where they are calleddahon ng sili (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken souptinola.[70] In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used inkimchi.[71]
Chilies are present in many cuisines, includingcurries. In Peru,Papa a la huancaina is a dish of potatoes in a sauce of fresh cheese andaji amarillo chilies.[72] In Thailand,kaeng tai pla fish curry is flavoured with atai pla sauce made with garlic, shallots, galangal, kaffir lime, turmeric, fish paste, and bird's eye chilies.[72] In Jamaica,jerk chicken is spiced with powerful habanero chilies andallspice.[72] Goanvindaloo curry uses the extremely hotghost pepper or bhut jolokia to create "perhaps [India's] hottest dish".[72] InBhutan,ema datshi, entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese, is the national dish.[73][74] ManyMexican dishes use chilies of different types, including thejalapeño,poblano,habanero,serrano,chipotle,ancho,pasilla,guajillo,de árbol,cascabel andmulato. These offer a wide range of flavours including citrus, earthy, fruity, and grassy. They are used in many dishes and the spicymole sauce and Mexicansalsa sauces.[75] InYoruba cuisine, chillies are well used in many dishes includingEwa Agoyin[76] andObe ata.
Dishes
Mexican lamb chops withguajillo chili sauce and charro beans
PsychologistPaul Rozin suggests that eating ordinary chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding aroller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any significant risk of bodily harm.[80]
Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used inpepper sprays and sometear gas formulations as a chemical irritant, for use asless-lethal weapons for control of unruly individuals or crowds.[83] Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death.[83]
In Africa and Asia, elephants nightly destroy crops and endanger people. Chilis are effective at keeping elephants away, as capsaicin irritates their large and sensitiveolfactory and nasal system. Farmers can plant a few rows of the fruit around valuable crops; or they may burn chili dung bombs, bricks of dung and chili, creating a noxious smoke.[84]
Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin as mammals, as they lack a specificpain receptor. Some species in the chili peppers' natural range eat the fruits, possibly dispersing the seeds.[46]
The 16th century Spanish missionary and naturalistJosé de Acosta noted the supposedaphrodisiac power of chilies, but wrote that they were harmful to people'sspiritual health.[85] In the 1970s, the government of Peru forbade prison inmates to consume chilies, their explanation being that these were "not appropriate for men forced to live a limited lifestyle."[85]
The 2021 Plant Habitat-04 experiment aboard theInternational Space Station grew four chili plants in 137 days, producing twenty-six peppers across two harvests. Most were eaten by the crew; twelve were returned to Earth for study. The plants were a specially dwarfed variety of the Hatchcultivar. This was the "first generally recognized fruiting crop in space", following harvests of leaf crops such as lettuce and kale from 2014 onwards.[86]
^Chiou KL, Hastorf CA (16 December 2014). "A Systematic Approach to Species-Level Identification of Chile Pepper (Capsicum spp.) Seeds: Establishing the Groundwork for Tracking the Domestication and Movement of Chile Peppers through the Americas and Beyond".Economic Botany.68 (3). New York Botanical Garden Press:316–336.Bibcode:2014EcBot..68..316C.doi:10.1007/s12231-014-9279-2.JSTOR43305668.S2CID36556206.
^Brian R. Dott (2020).The Chile Pepper in China.Columbia University Press. p. 21.ISBN978-0-231-55130-4.The earliest known record for chiles in a Chinese source is from Hangzhou, Zhejiang, in 1591
^"HORT410. Peppers – Notes".Purdue University Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture. Archived fromthe original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved20 October 2009.Common name: pepper. Latin name: Capsicum annuum L. ... Harvested organ: fruit. Fruit varies substantially in shape, pericarp thickness, color and pungency.
^Kosuge S, Inagaki Y (1962). "Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part XI. Determination and contents of the two pungent".Journal of the Agricultural Chemical Society of Japan (in Japanese).36:251–254.
^"Capsaicin". PubChem, US National Library of Medicine. 27 May 2023. Retrieved1 June 2023.
^Rozin P, Schiller D (1980). "The Nature and Acquisition of a Preference for Chili Pepper by Humans".Motivation and Emotion.4 (1):77–101.doi:10.1007/BF00995932.S2CID143848453.
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