a.^ As of 31 December 2019[update]. Based on the projected population of Chile as of 31 December 2019 (19,283,722) minus the non-Chilean population living in Chile as of 31 December 2019 (1,492,522) plus the Chilean population living abroad as of 2016 (1,037,346).
However, many Chileans do not equate their nationality with ethnicity, but with citizenship and allegiance to Chile. This has resulted due to immigration to Chile throughout its history, and thus the term "Chilean" can now also include people identifying with the country whose connection may not be ethnic, but cultural, historical, legal, or residential. For most modern Chileans, several or all of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their Chilean identity.
There is a strong correlation between the ratio of a Chilean'sEuropean andindigenous genetic components and theirsocioeconomic situation.[10][11] There is a marked continuum[11] existing between thelower classes of a high component of indigenous ancestry and theupper classes of a predominant component of European ancestry. Indigenous inheritance, whether cultural or genetic, is most pronounced in rural areas and in aspects of culture such asChilean cuisine andChilean Spanish. Although post-independence immigrants never made up more than 2% of the population, there are now hundreds of thousands of Chileans withGerman,[12] British, French, Croatian, Italian orPalestinian[13] ancestry, though these have also been mostlymiscegenated with other groups within the country.
As in otherLatin American countries, in Chile, from the onset ofSpanish colonization and settlement,miscegenation ormestizaje was the norm rather than the exception. Today, ethnic and racial self-identities are highly fluid and can differ between persons of the same family, including siblings of the same parentage.[citation needed] It is dictated not only by strict physical appearance, nor more loosely by ancestry (actual or presumed), but bycultural patterns,social class, wealth and access, language, and prevailing biases of the era.[citation needed] These very factors, indeed, lend to the significantly varying ethnic structure figures from one source to the next. Additionally, those various figures refer to different, even if often overlapping, concepts: including racial vs ethnic categories, self-identity vs genetic findings, as well as culturally assigned categories. These concepts should not be confused, and the figures represented in one source might not be corresponding to figures of concepts from another source.
Thus, for instance,UNAM professor ofLatin American studies, Francisco Lizcano, in his social research estimates that a predominant 52.7% of the Chilean population can be classified asEuropean, with an estimated 44% asMestizo.[17] Other social studies put the total amount ofWhites at over 60 percent.[18]
According to a 2012 estimate by theUS Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)World Factbook, the population consists of 88.9% of "White and non-Indigenous", with the remaining percentages being Amerindians, except for a 0.3% "unspecified".[19]
Some publications state that the entire population consist of a combined 95.4% of "Whites and White-Amerindians", and 4.6% of indigenous peoples. These figures are based on a national census held in 2002, which classified the population as indigenous and non-indigenous, rather than as White or Mestizo.
Despite this, a Chilean researcher in 2015 stated that "there are no Chileans without Amerindian or European ancestry".[20]
67.9% European; 32.1% Indigenous; (Valenzuela, 1984):Marco de referencia sociogenético para los estudios de salud pública en Chile, fuente: Revista Chilena de Pediatría.[21][22]
64.0% European; 35.0% Indigenous; (Cruz-Coke, 1994):Genetic epidemiology of single gene defects in Chile, fuente:Universidad de Chile.[23]
57.2% European; 38.7% Indigenous; 2.5% African; 1.7% Asian; (Homburger et al., 2015):Genomic Insights into the Ancestry and Demographic History of South America, fuente:PLOS ONE Genetics.[24]
Anautosomal DNA study from 2014 found Chile to possess a genepool averaging 51.85% (± 5.44%) European, 44.34% (± 3.9%) Indigenous, and 3.81% (± 0.45%) African DNA.[25] The genetic study was conducted across all regions of Chile, and while it "ratified the preponderance ofmestizaje in Chile",[26] it also found "the indigenous presence is marked by a curve in the Chilean territory. In the north, betweenArica andCoquimbo, and in the south, betweenLa Araucanía andAysén, the genes of indigenous Amerindians exceeds 50%. Only in thecentral region and thefar south does the European component surpass [the Amerindian component]."[27] However, the majority of Chile's population is concentrated in the central regions of the country.
Others genetics topics
Cities with a historically higher proportion of European immigration, such asConcepción, in south central Chile, exhibited an average middle class genepool of 75% European and 25% Indigenous DNA, while inValparaíso the average middle class genepool was 77% European and 23% Indigenous DNA.[28] By contrast, in southern and northern regions of the country, the Indigenous component surpassed the European component.
Chilean students in Santiago de Chile
Related genetic studies conducted on Santiago'smtDNA andY-DNA found a sex bias in the ethnic origin of those sex-specific chromosomes. Thus, across all social classes, an overwhelming 84% of Santiago'smitochondrial DNA (inherited only from mother to child) is of Indigenous origin, while theY chromosome (inherited only from father to son) is about 70% of European origin,[29] and between 6% and 15% Indigenous, depending on the area of the city.[30] The results indicate a gender asymmetrical pattern of sexual relations leading to childbirth in Chile's history.
On agenotypic (genetic) level, however, persons in all groups, despite their classification by phenotype (appearance) would nonetheless contain admixture, not just those with stereotypically mestizo appearance. Thus, in Chile, the three groups, the phenotypically "white," "mestizo," and "indigenous," would represent a genetic continuum rather than isolated groups, including the presence of some Indigenous DNA in Chileans who appear more European and some European DNA in Chileans who appear more Indigenous.
In a 2011Latinobarómetro survey which asked respondents in Chile what race they considered themselves to belong to, a majority of 67% answered "white", while 25% said "mestizo", and 8% self-classified as "indigenous".[31]
A 2002 national poll revealed that a slim majority of 51.7% of Chileans stated that they believed that they possessed "indigenous blood". Some 43.4% of respondents said that they believed they had "some" Amerindian ancestry and another 8.3% believed they had "much" Amerindian ancestry, but 40.3% responded that they believed that they had no Amerindian ancestry.[32] Despite a majority of Chileans acknowledging that they had at least some Amerindian ancestry, if asked, many Chileans would simply self-identify as white.
As of 2017, according toEncyclopædia Britannica, about 88% of Chileans were white or mestizo, and 12% were indigenous.[33]
The indigenousPicunche population ofCentral Chile disappeared by a process of mestizaje by gradually abandoning their villages (pueblo de indios) to settle in nearby Spanish haciendas. There Picunches mingled with disparate indigenous peoples brought in from:Araucanía (Mapuche),Chiloé (Huilliche,Cunco,Chono,Poyas[34]) andArgentina (Huarpe[35]).[36] Few in numbers, disconnected from their ancestral lands and diluted by mestizaje the Picunche and their descendants lost their indigenous identity.[36]
The government ofAgustín de Jáuregui, which ruled around 1777–1778, ordered the first general population census. The census confirmed a total of 259,646 inhabitants at the time, with 73.5% classified as Caucasian, 9.8% asAfrican, 8.6% asIndian, and 7.8% as Mestizo. In 1784, Francisco Hurtado, governor of the province ofChiloé, conducted a population census in Chiloe that totaled 26,703 inhabitants, of which about 64.4% was classified asespañoles ("Spaniards", Caucasian and mixed Mestizo people) and 33.5% consideredindios ("Indians").[citation needed] First generation mestizos sprang largely from the intercourse of Spanish men and indigenous women.[37] The opposite, the union of indigenous men and Spanish women was rare but not unheard of.[37][38]
In 1812, the Diocese ofConcepción conducted a census to the south of theMaule river; however, this did not include the indigenous population — at that time estimated at 8,000 people — nor the inhabitants of the province of Chiloé. It put the total population at 210,567, of which 86.1% was native Spaniards and 10% were Indian, with a remaining 3.7% of African,mulattos, and mestizo descent.[39] Other estimates in the late 17th century indicate that the population reached a maximum total of 152,000, consisting of 72% whites and mestizos, 18% Indians, and 10% blacks and mulattos.[40]
For many years, Spanish-descent settlers and religious orders imported African slaves to the country, which in the early 19th century constituted 1.5% of the national population.[41] Despite this, theAfro-Chilean population was small, reaching a height of only 2,500 — or 0.1% of the total population — during the colonial period.[42] The birth rates of black people were low. According toSergio Villalobos this could have been indebted to the fact that black women and men were often apart as result of their slave labor and anhesitancy of other racial groups to engage with them.[37]
Chileans in the metro in Santiago de Chile
In the 18th century, many Spanish civilians (mainly ofBasque origin) entered the country, in particular attracted by trade liberalization at the time enacted by the Spanish Crown. In the late 18th century, Basque descendants were estimated to comprise 27% of the total population.[43] Most of the Basque immigrants initially partook in small businesses, though others attained higher levels of prosperity. Of those, many mixed with the Criolloaristocracy of Castilian origin, who owned much of the land. This resulted in theCastilian-Basque aristocracy, which later came to form the basis of the Chilean ruling class; other Basques also integrated with mestizo population of Castilian origin, that resulted in modern Chilean middle classes. The number of descendants from Basques in Chile are estimated at 10% of the population (1.7 million).[44][45][46][47][48][49][50]
A substantialGermanimmigration took place in 1848, laying the foundation for theGerman-Chilean community. Under a government sponsored program aimed at colonizing the southern region, the Germans (including German-speakingSwiss,Silesians,Alsatians,Austrians, andSudeten Germans), colonized the south and have since influenced the cultural and racial composition of the southern provinces of Chile. It is estimated that 150,000 to 200,000 Chileans could have German ancestors.[51]
Other historically significant immigrant groups include:Croatians, whose numbers today are estimated at 380,000 persons, about 2.4% of the population.[58][59] 4.6% of the Chilean population has someCroatian ancestry.[60] Over 700,000 Chileans, 4.5% of Chile's population, hasBritish (English,Scottish andWelsh) origin.[61]
In 1903, a fleet of 88Canarian families—400 persons—arrived inBudi Lake, Chile, that currently have more than 1,000 descendants, as a response to the government's call to populate this region and signed contracts for the benefit of a private company. While manyCanarians obeyed their service, some of those who disobeyed the provisions of repopulation tried to escape their service and were arrested, and the indigenous Mapuche people took pity on the plight of these Canarians who were established on their former lands. The Mapuches welcomed them and joined their demonstrations in the so-called "revolt of the Canarians", and many Canarians integrated into Mapuche population to add the large mestizo population that exists in Chile.[66]
TheEuropean immigrants have transformed the countryculturally,economically andpolitically. European emigration in Chile and to a lesser extent, the arrival from theMiddle East during the second half of the 19th and 20th centuries, was the most important in Latin America[67][68] second to that which occurred in theAtlantic Coast of the Southern Cone (i.e.,Argentina and southernBrazil).[69]
These European ethnic groups have intermarried thereby diluting the distinct cultures, descent and identities of the home countries and fusing them among each other. These intermixed cultures form the society and culture of the Chilean middle and upper classes.[45] The European have still preserved elements of themselves, therefore they enjoy the original European cultural practices such as theBritish afternoon tea and biscuits,French casseroles and coffee,German cakes and sausage, andItalian pasta and mineral waters. The cultural influences can also be seen in the architecture of the cities. The Chileanfolk culture is not embraced as it is an offshoot of the culture of theSpaniards who settled the country in the colonial period.
Since 1990, with the end of Augusto Pinochet's dictatorship and the return to democracy, and the subsequent socioeconomic development of the country, a significant number of immigrants from various Latin American countries started to arrive to Chile. These represented nearly 1,200,000 people (2017) corresponding to 7% of the population residing in the country.[70] They were composed of 288,233 Venezuelans, 223,923 Peruvians, 179,338 Haitians, 146,582 Colombians, 107,346 Bolivians, 74,713 Argentines, 36,994 Ecuadorians, 18,185 Brazilians, 17,959 Dominicans, 15,837 Cubans and 8,975 Mexicans.[71]
This has prompted a change in the physiognomy of certain boroughs ("communes") in the country where its number is concentrated. In boroughs such asSantiago Centro andIndependencia, a third of all residents (28% and 31% respectively) were born abroad.[72] Other communes of Greater Santiago with high numbers of immigrants areEstación Central (17%) andRecoleta (16%).[73] In the northern regions such asAntofagasta Region, 17.3% of the population is a Latin American foreigner, with communes such asOllagüe (31%),Mejillones (16%),Sierra Gorda (16%) andAntofagasta (11%), with high percentages of Latin American immigrants, mainly Bolivians, Colombians and Peruvians.[74]
With the independence of Chile in the 1810s, Mapuche began to be seen as Chileans by other Chileans, contrasting with previous perceptions of them as a separate people or nation.[75]
Although indigenous peoples like Mapuche and Aymaras are in some situations contrasted against Chilean people the two demonyms are not mutually exclusive and are rather often used in combination. For example,"a Chilean Aymara" can be used to contrast withAymaras living in Bolivia or Peru.
The 1907 census reported 101,118 Indians, or 3.1% of the total country population. Only those that practiced their native culture or spoke their native language were considered, irrespective of their "racial purity."[76]
At the 2002 census, people that declared themselves as indigenous amounted to 4.6% of the population (692,192 people); of these, 87.3% declared themselves Mapuche.[77] as with Chileans of other backgrounds most Mapuche show varying degrees of mixed ancestry.
Some native peoples of Chile disappeared product from acculturation and miscegenation, as is the case of peoplesPicunches,Diaguitas andChonos, whereas a large number ofSelkʼnam or Onas disappeared by the extermination carried out by settlers in Tierra del Fuego in the early 20th century. Other factors that contributed to their extinction were diseases brought by Europeans, such assmallpox.
According to the 2017 census, 12.8% of the Chilean population, 1 842 607 people of 14 years or more, declares themselvesindigenous. Of the total indigenous population, 79.8% declared themselves Mapuche; 7.2%,Aymara; 4.1%,Diaguita; 1.6%,Quechua; 1.4%,Atacameño; 0.9%,Colla; 0.4%,Rapa Nui; 0.1%,Kawésqar and 0.1%,Yaghan. 1.3% identified with another and 3.1% identified as indigenous but it has not been said which.
Theranches called fundos, where the huasos lived and worked show strong similarity withSpanish vernacular architecture, especially in the canal roofs and the interior courtyards. The fundo is now thought of as traditional Chilean architecture and is associated with thehuaso.[80]
As well as the huaso culture of the central part of the country can be seen theGerman,Chilote, Croatian and Magallanic culture in the south, and the Andean culture in the north.
Chile'sNueva Canción movement in modern Chilean folk culture is adapted from the folk music of the north, not of the brass bands but of the panpipes and quenas. The traditional Chilean folk music of the huasos were also popularized, particularly the tonadas, folk songs sung with a guitar, mainly on the topics of love. Several folk groups who dress in huaso costume became famous nationwide.
The folk culture that is mainly associated with the Chilean national identity is that of the huasos as that is where the Chilean state was formed and it spread northwards and southwards in the late 19th century.
Emigration of Chileans has decreased during the last decade: It is estimated that 857,781 Chileans live abroad, 50.1% of those being in Argentina (the highest number), 13.3% in the United States, 8.8% inBrazil, 4.9% in Sweden, and around 2% in Australia, with the rest being scattered in smaller numbers across the globe. Other Chilean refugees settled (not ranked by order of size) in Spain, Mexico,Costa Rica, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Germany, New Zealand, and Italy.
Many pro-Allende refugees in the 1970s fled toEast Germany, including presidentMichelle Bachelet, who also lived in Australia.[81] Anti-Pinochet refugees formed a large expatriate community in Europe and a smaller community in North America (the US and Canada). The Chilean-Swedish population is estimated at 56,000 people,[3] a result of migration that began with the political refugees from the 1973 coup d'état.
Chilean economistOrlando Letelier was assassinated in Washington, D.C. by Pinochet's secret police in 1976
Over 100,000 Chileans fleeing from both regimes in the 1970s and 1980s settled in the US, a small number compared to otherLatino groups. The highest number settled inMiami, Florida, but smaller enclaves are inWashington, D.C.; New York City; andCalifornia (the Los Angeles area –Beverly Hills andLong Beach; and San Francisco –San Mateo County).
Approximately 2,500 Chilean exiles fled to the UK in the early 1970s and by most recent estimates, theChilean British population is in its tens of thousands, and represents a significant proportion of the UK'sLatin American community. By far, the largest concentration of Chileans can be found in London with significant other communities beingBirmingham,Sheffield and theManchester–Liverpool Metropolitan area.[82]
Historic emigration took place in the early 19th century when Chilean ranchers went to Mexico after their independence. Thousands of miners from Chile went toCalifornia, the U.S. during the 1850sCalifornia Gold Rush, as well in other gold rushes inColorado (1870s) and theYukon (1890s). Small numbers of Chilean miners also migrated to South Africa and Australia for the same reason.[83][84]
^U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce. "Hispanic or Latino Origin by Specific Origin."American Community Survey, ACS 1-Year Estimates Detailed Tables, Table B03001, 2024,https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2024.B03001?q=B03001: HISPANIC OR LATINO ORIGIN BY SPECIFIC ORIGIN. Accessed on September 23, 2025.
^Valenzuela C. (1984). Marco de Referencia Sociogenético para los Estudios de Salud Pública en Chile.Revista Chilena de Pediatría; 55: 123–7.
^Vanegas, J.; Villalón, M.; Valenzuela, C. (2008). Consideraciones acerca del uso de la variable etnia/raza en investigación epidemiológica para la Salud Pública: A propósito de investigaciones en inequidades.Revista Médica de Chile, 136(5), 637–644. doi:10.4067/S0034-98872008000500014.
^abcVillalobos, Sergio (1983).Historia del pueblo chileno (in Spanish). Vol. II. Santiago de Chile: Zig-Zag. pp. 112–113.
^Guzmán, Carmen Luz (2013). "Las cautivas de las Siete Ciudades: El cautiverio de mujeres hispanocriollas durante la Guerra de Arauco, en la perspectiva de cuatro cronistas (s. XVII)" [The captives of the Seven Cities: The captivity of hispanic-creole women during the Arauco's War, from the insight of four chroniclers (17th century)].Intus-Legere Historia (in Spanish).7 (1):77–97.doi:10.15691/07176864.2014.094 (inactive 11 July 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
^[Rolando Mellafe (1959): "La introducción de la esclavitud negra en Chile. Tráfico y rutas", Universidad de Chile (Departamento Historia Instituto Pedagógico). Santiago]
^Contacto Interlingüístico e intercultural en el mundo hispano.instituto valenciano de lenguas y culturas. Universitat de València Cita: "Un 20% de la población chilena tiene su origen en el País Vasco".
^Ilić, Merien (25 March 2009)."Splitski osnovnoškolci rođeni u Čileu" [Split primary school pupils were born in Chile] (in Croatian). Matis.hr. Archived fromthe original on 17 September 2011. Retrieved22 September 2011.
^"hrvatski". Hrvatski.cl. Archived fromthe original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved22 September 2011.
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