Chilean expansionism refers to theforeign policy ofChile toexpand its territorial control over key strategic locations and economic resources as a means to ensure itsnational security and assert itspower inSouth America.[A] Chile's significant territorial acquisitions, which occurred mostly throughout the 19th century, paved the way for itsemergence as athalassocracy and one of thethree most powerful and wealthiest states in South America during the 20th century. It also formed Chile'sgeopolitical andnational identity as atricontinental state and one of thecountries with the longest coastlines in the world.
Most of the territory was owned by Chilede jure but not controlledde facto.
After achieving itsindependence from Spain in 1818, Chile held control of territory spanning roughly the same boundaries of the colonialgeneral captaincy that was under the control of theSpanish Empire'sViceroyalty of Peru. Under theuti possidetis iuris principle that delimited the international boundaries of the newly independent South American states, Chile bordered at its north withBolivia in theAtacama Desert and at its east withArgentina. To the south, Chile claimed all lands west of the Andes and the entirety ofPatagonia (principally for theStrait of Magellan), but in practice controlled only the area down to theBío Bío River plus the area betweenValdivia andChiloé—the rest of the territory being either controlled by the independentMapuche ofAraucanía or sparsely populated by other indigenous tribes.
Theuti possidetis system proved ephemeral, nonetheless; the lack of formal border treaties caused territorial disputes throughout the continent. This uncertainty presented both challenges and opportunities for Chile, with regional instability creating a precarious state of diplomatic affairs but also allowing the growth of Chilean power ambitions. The Chilean nationalelite sought to ensure that the country's territorial limits and the regionalbalance of power would favor their economic and political aspirations. Towards this end, the country increased its military power, especially itsnaval presence, to pursue a policy of intimidation and force.[2]
To its north, Chile imposed its dominance by eliminating the threat posed by the union ofBolivia withPeru during theWar of the Confederation (1836–1839), followed by the conquest of these countries' mineral-rich territories in the Atacama during theWar of the Pacific (1879–1884)—in the process leaving Bolivialandlocked andoccupying the Peruvian capital. To its south and east, Chile used military force andcolonization tooccupy Araucanía (1861–1883) and successfullydispute Argentine claims over westernmost Patagonia and the Strait of Magellan—the outbreak of war only narrowly avoided in multiple occasions. Chile's expansionist drive practically culminated withEaster Island's annexation in 1888, but vestiges of it continued well into the 20th century—e.g., the country'sclaim over Antarctic territory in 1940.
Although Chile did not fulfill all of its territorial ambitions, its relative success attracted the attention of the Western Hemisphere's other majorexpansionist polity, theUnited States, and cemented Chile's status as aregional power inLatin America. Chile's territorial expansion also left a legacy of distrust with its neighbors, all of which continue having boundary disputes with Chile. The country's mistreatment of the non-Chilean inhabitants of its conquered territories, particularly the state-sponsored forcedcultural assimilation process of "Chilenization", have further led to internal tensions and calls for greater autonomy, if not independence, from theMapuche and theRapa Nui.[3]
The newly independentRepublic of Chile's territorial possessions, inherited from the colonial general captaincy (capitanía general) that was under the control of theSpanish Empire'sViceroyalty of Peru, had left the state surrounded by undefined boundaries. Its northernmost settlement wasCopiapó in the southernAtacama Desert, borderingBolivia; however, its exact boundary wasdisputed until 1866, when both countriesdelimited their boundaries at the 24° South parallel from thePacific Ocean. Its southernmost settlement wasConcepción, a few kilometers north of thefrontier fortifications between Chile and theAraucanía, the territory that theMapucheindigenous peoples had successfully retained after defeating Spain in theArauco War.
English:"We must always dominate in thePacific: This must be its [Chile's]maxim now, and hopefully will be Chile's forever"
Spanish:"Debemos dominar para siempre en el Pacífico: ésta debe ser su máxima ahora, y ojalá fuera la de Chile para siempre"
— Diego Portales, Letter to Vice AdmiralManuel Blanco Encalada (10 September 1836).[4]
To its north, Chile imposed its dominance by eliminating the threat posed by the union ofBolivia withPeru during theWar of the Confederation (1836–1839), followed by the conquest of these countries' mineral-rich territories in the Atacama during theWar of the Pacific (1879–1884)—in the process leaving Bolivialandlocked andsacking the Peruvian capital. Chile gained control over Tacna, Arica, Tarapacá, Antofagasta andPuna de Atacama. Tacna and Puna de Atacama territories were mostly lost later on by diplomacy.
Chile slowly started to expand its influence and to establish its borders. By the Tantauco Treaty, the archipelago of Chiloé was incorporated in 1826. The economy began to boom due to the discovery of silver ore in Chañarcillo, and the growing trade of the port of Valparaíso, which led to conflict over maritime supremacy in the Pacific with Peru.
TheBoundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina confirmed Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan. As a result of theWar of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuablenitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. Chile had joined the stand as one of the high-income countries in South America by 1870.[5]
To its south and east, Chile used military force andcolonization tooccupy Araucanía (1861–1883) and successfullydispute Argentine claims over westernmostPatagonia and theStrait of Magellan—the outbreak of war only narrowly avoided in multiple occasions.
 | This sectiondoes notcite anysources. Please helpimprove this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged andremoved.(July 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
At the same time, attempts were made to strengthen sovereignty in southern Chile intensifyingpenetration into Araucanía andcolonizing Llanquihue with German immigrants in 1848. Through the founding ofFort Bulnes by theSchooner Ancud under the command ofJohn Williams Wilson, the Magallanes region joined the country in 1843, while the Antofagasta area, at the time part of, Bolivia, began to fill with people.
There was a failed Chilean settlement in "Puerto Gallegos" on the banks of theriver of the same name since March 4, 1873. The governor of Magallanes, Óscar Viel y Toro, commissioned by Minister Adolfo Ibáñez Gutiérrez, was in charge of founding the settlement, which would only last six weeks after the diplomatic agreement between this country and the Argentine Nation. There was also the presence of Chilean ships up to theSanta Cruz River.
Chile's interest in expanding into theislands of the Pacific Ocean dates to the presidency ofJosé Joaquín Prieto (1831–1841) and the ideology ofDiego Portales, who considered that Chile's expansion into Polynesia was a natural consequence of its maritime destiny.[6][B] The first stage of the country's expansionism into the Pacific began a decade later, in 1851, when—in response to an American incursion into theJuan Fernández Islands—Chile's government formally organized the islands into a subdelegation ofValparaíso.[8] That same year, Chile'smerchant fleet briefly succeeded in creating an agricultural goods exchange market that connected theCalifornian port ofSan Francisco withAustralia, renewing Chile's economic interest in the Pacific.[9] By 1861, Chile had established a lucrative enterprise across the Pacific, itsnational currency abundantly circulating throughout Polynesia and its merchants trading in the markets ofTahiti,New Zealand,Tasmania, andShanghai; moreover, negotiations were also made with theSpanish Philippines, and altercations reportedly occurred between Chilean and American whalers in theSea of Japan.[10] This period ended as a result of theChilean merchant fleet's destruction by Spanish forces in 1866, during theChincha Islands War.[11]
Chile's Polynesian aspirations would again be awakened in the aftermath of the country's decisive victory against Peru in the War of the Pacific, which left the Chilean fleet as the dominant maritime force in the Pacific coast of the Americas.[6] Valparaíso had also become the most important port in the Pacific coast of South America, providing Chilean merchants with the capacity to find markets in the Pacific for its new mineral wealth acquired from the Atacama.[12] During this period, the Chilean intellectual and politicianBenjamín Vicuña Mackenna (who served as senator in theNational Congress from 1876 to 1885) was an influential voice in favor of Chilean expansionism into the Pacific—he considered Spain's discoveries in the Pacific to have been taken by the British, and envisioned that Chile's duty was to create an empire in the Pacific that would reachAsian shores.[6] In the context of thisimperialist fervor in 1886, CaptainPolicarpo Toro of theChilean Navy proposed to his superiors the annexation ofEaster Island; a proposal that attained support from PresidentJosé Manuel Balmaceda because of the island's apparent strategic location and economic value. After Toro transferred the rights to the island's sheep ranching operations from Tahiti-based businesses to the Chilean-basedWilliamson-Balfour Company in 1887, Easter Island's annexation process was culminated with the signing of the "Agreement of Wills" between Rapa Nui chieftains and Toro, in name of the Chilean government, in 1888.[13]
Chile claims to have sovereignty over part of Antarctica inherited from the Spanish Empire since 1539, more specifically from theGovernorate of Terra Australis which was transferred to the Kingdom of Chile in 1555.[14][15][16][17][18]
In 1603, AdmiralGabriel de Castilla,[19][20] who leftValparaíso to reconnoiter the coasts ofChile, reached the southwest coast, reaching the 64th degree south, discovering the firstAntarctic lands, and it was not until 1616 thatCape Horn was discovered.[14]
In the 19th century the growth of the Chilean colony in Magallanes, and then in the city ofPunta Arenas, allowed the founding of companies for hunting and exploitation of whales in Antarctic seas, which requested authorization from the Chilean government. In 1894, the power for the exploitation of marine resources in the south of theparallel 54°S was given to the Punta Arenas Municipality.
In the early years of the 20th century, the interest of studying the Antarctic territories increased. Some of these expeditions asked permission from the government of Chile to be performed, among which one can highlight theSwedish teacherOtto Nordenskjöld in 1902 and theBritish teacherRobert F. Scott in 1900. Chile also gave mining permits, as conferred on December 31, 1902, Decree No. 3310 by Pedro Pablo Benavides to lease theDiego Ramírez Islands andSan Ildefonso, may extend fishing south indefinitely on condition to install a naval station in the islands.
On May 8, 1906, theWhaling Society of Magallanes was created with a base in Punta Arenas, which was authorized on December 1 to settle in theSouth Shetland Islands by Decree No. 1314 of the governor of Magallanes, which they did in Whalers Bay on Deception Island, there hoisted the Chilean flag and installing a coal deposit. That place was visited byJean-Baptiste Charcot in December 1908 to replenish coal and continued to be inhabited in summer season until 1914.
From 1906, they began to be promulgated several decrees, even from theNational Congress of Chile, for mining permits in the Antarctic area. The Minister of Foreign Affairs of Chile mentioned onSeptember 18, Chilean national day, of that year, the Chilean Antarctic rights in a memory and said that the delimitation of the territory would be subject to preliminary investigations. Argentina formally protested the June 10, 1907, for these actions in Chile and a negotiation process began for the mutual recognition of Antarctic territories. A limit was to be set to define two different areas, but this treaty was never signed.
On July 21, 1908, theUnited Kingdom officially announced its claim to sovereignty over all lands within the meridians 20° and 80° south of parallel 50°, in 1917 was moved to 58° south and in 1962, to the parallel 60° south.
In 1914, the BritishErnest Shackleton began an expedition to cross the South Pole from theWeddell Sea toRoss Sea. With two ships,Endurance andAurora, he went to Antarctica, but the weather worsened dramatically until an iceberg sank theEndurance. Shackleton then sailed to Argentine ports, theFalklands andSouth Georgia Islands without finding anyone willing to join the expedition trapped on an Antarctic island. In Punta Arenas, however, he found the pilotLuis Pardo Villalón, who, while aboard theYelcho, managed to rescue those shipwrecked on theElephant Island. On September 4, 1916, they were received at the port of Punta Arenas as heroes. The Pilot Pardo feat, sailing with temperatures close to −30 °C (−22 °F) and a stormy sea oficebergs, made him win national and international recognition.
On January 14, 1939,Norway declared its territorial claims on Antarctic territory between meridians 0° and 20° (Queen Maud Land), which alarmed the Chilean government, so the presidentPedro Aguirre Cerda encouraged the definition of National Antarctic Territory and the September 7 of that year established by Decree No. 1541 a special commission to examine the country's interests in Antarctica.
The commission set the bounds according to theTheory of polar areas taking into account geographical, historical, legal and diplomatic precedents, which were formalized by Decree No. 1747, enacted on November 6, 1940, and published on June 21, 1955.[21] As in Chile is considered their Antarctic rights arrived until the lineTreaty of Tordesillas, the decree setting the limit of his claim in a meridian located further west (the 53° West), his claim to not include theSouth Orkney Islands in consideration of the rights of Argentina.[a]
Chile began to perform acts of sovereignty in the Antarctic continent with installation, Sovereignty Base currentArturo Prat in 1947. The following year, and as a way of settling the Chilean claims, the PresidentGabriel Gonzalez Videla opened theBase General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme, the firstofficial visit ofHead of state to Antarctica.
Law No. 11486 of June 17, 1955 added the Chilean Antarctic Territory to theProvince of Magallanes, which became on July 12, 1974, theXII Region of Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica.
In 1958, the president of theUSDwight Eisenhower invited Chile to the Conference by theInternational Geophysical Year to resolve the issue Antarctic. On 1 December 1959,Chile signed theAntarctic Treaty which freezes (but doesn't derogate) all the territorial claims in the continent, ensuring each signatory nation to astatus quo for the duration of the treaty.
In 1978, amiddirect negotiations attempting to settle theBeagle conflict, Chilean DictatorAugusto Pinochet assured that Chile had no expansionist intentions, but that his government would "defend the patrimony that belongs to it by right".[22]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Chile temporarily resolved its border disputes with Argentina with thePuna de Atacama Lawsuit of 1899 and theCordillera of the Andes Boundary Case, 1902.
Chile's rise as a major geopolitical power in the South Pacific also had the consequence of placing it in direct confrontation with the United States.[23]
According to Chilean diplomatJuan Salazar Sparks, the political theories ofAndrés Bello and Diego Portales were neither expansionist norinterventionist; rather, he argues, they believed that Chile's status as amaritime nation and its role as a promoter ofPan-Americanism rested on its moral leadership,cultural influence, and success in maintaining the regional balance of power.[24] Moreover, he considers that Chile was forced into wars with Peru and Bolivia in order to protect the regional balance of power, and that the country's participation in theChincha Islands War is evidence of its commitment to Pan-Americanism.[24] Chilean researcher Felipe Sanfuentes also argues that Chile was not an expansionist country and considers that this perspective is promoted by Argentineirrendentism overTierra del Fuego andPatagonia.[25]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)