Includes Easter Island andIsla Salas y Gómez; does not include 1,250,000 square kilometres (480,000 sq mi) of territory claimed in Antarctica.
Chile,[a] officially theRepublic of Chile,[b] is a country in westernSouth America. It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest toAntarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between theAndes Mountains and thePacific Ocean. Chile had a population of 17.5 million as of the latest census in 2017 and has a territorial area of 756,102 square kilometers (291,933 sq mi),[12][3] sharing borders withPeru to the north,Bolivia to the northeast,Argentina to the east, and theDrake Passage to the south. The country also controls several Pacific islands, includingJuan Fernández,Isla Salas y Gómez,Desventuradas, andEaster Island, and claims about 1,250,000 square kilometers (480,000 sq mi) of Antarctica as theChilean Antarctic Territory.[nb 2] The capital and largest city of Chile isSantiago, and the national language isSpanish.
There are various theories about the origin of the wordChile. According to 17th-century Spanish chroniclerDiego de Rosales,[24] theIncas called the valley of theAconcaguaChili by corruption of the name of aPicunchetribal chief (cacique) calledTili, who ruled the area at the time of the Incan conquest in the 15th century.[25][26] Another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of theCasma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley namedChili.[26]
Other theories say Chile may derive its name from aNative American word meaning either 'ends of the earth' or 'sea gulls';[27] from the Mapuche wordchilli, which may mean 'where the land ends'"[28] or from theQuechuachiri,[29] 'cold',[30] ortchili, meaning either 'snow'[30][31] or "the deepest point of the Earth".[32] Another origin attributed tochilli is the onomatopoeiccheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a bird locally known astrile.[28][33]
The Spanishconquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, and the few survivors ofDiego de Almagro's first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535–36 called themselves the "men of Chilli".[28] Ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the nameChile, after naming theMapocho valley as such.[26] The older spelling "Chili" was in use in English until the early 20th century before switching to "Chile".[34]
Stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented theMonte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migratingIndigenous peoples settled in fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present-day Chile. Settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde,Cueva del Milodón and thePali-Aike Crater'slava tube.[35]
The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but theMapuche (or Araucanians as they were known by the Spaniards) successfully resisted many attempts by theInca Empire to subjugate them, despite their lack of state organization.[36] They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army. The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as theBattle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at theMaule river.[37]
In 1520, while attempting to circumnavigate the globe,Ferdinand Magellan discovered the southern passage now named after him (theStrait of Magellan) thus becoming the first European to set foot on what is now Chile. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band ofSpanish conquistadors, who came fromPeru in 1535 seeking gold. The Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally throughslash-and-burn agriculture and hunting.[37]
The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out byPedro de Valdivia, one ofFrancisco Pizarro's lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of theSpanish Empire.[37]
Conquest took place gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks. A massiveMapuche insurrection that began in 1553 resulted in Valdivia's death and the destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections took place in 1598 and in 1655. Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was driven northward. The abolition ofslavery by the Spanish crown in 1683 was done in recognition that enslaving the Mapuche intensified resistance rather than cowing them into submission. Despite royal prohibitions, relations remained strained from continual colonialist interference.[42][verification needed]
Cut off to the north by desert, to the south by the Mapuche, to the east by the Andes Mountains, and to the west by the ocean, Chile became one of the most centralized, homogeneous territories in Spanish America. Serving as a sort of frontiergarrison, the colony found itself with the mission of forestalling encroachment by both the Mapuche and Spain's European enemies, especially theEnglish and theDutch.Buccaneers andpirates menaced the colony in addition to the Mapuche, as was shown bySir Francis Drake's 1578 raid on Valparaíso, the colony's principal port. Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas, making it one of the most militarized of the Spanish possessions, as well as adrain on the treasury of the Viceroyalty of Peru.[28]
The first general census was conducted by the government ofAgustín de Jáuregui between 1777 and 1778; it indicated that the population consisted of 259,646 inhabitants: 73.5% ofEuropean descent, 7.9%mestizos, 8.6%indigenous peoples and 9.8% blacks. Francisco Hurtado, Governor of the province ofChiloé, conducted a census in 1784 and found the population consisted of 26,703 inhabitants, 64.4% of whom were whites and 33.5% of whom were natives. The Diocese ofConcepción conducted a census in areas south of theMaule river in 1812, but did not include the indigenous population or the inhabitants of the province of Chiloé. The population is estimated at 210,567, 86.1% of whom wereSpanish or of European descent, 10% of whom were indigenous and 3.7% of whom were mestizos, blacks andmulattos.[43]
A 2021 study byBaten and Llorca-Jaña shows that regions with a relatively high share of North European migrants developed faster in terms ofnumeracy, even if the overall number of migrants was small. This effect might be related toexternalities: the surrounding population adopted a similar behavior as the small non-European immigrant group, and new schools were created. Ironically, there might have been positivespillover effects from the educational investment made by migrants, at the same time numeracy might have been reduced by the greater inequality in these regions. However, the positive effects of immigration were apparently stronger.[44]
In 1808,Napoleon's enthronement of his brotherJoseph as theSpanish King precipitated the drive by Chile forindependence from Spain. A nationaljunta in the name ofFerdinand – heir to the deposed king – was formed on 18 September 1810. TheGovernment Junta of Chile proclaimed an autonomous government for Chile within the Spanish monarchy (in memory of this day, Chile celebrates itsNational Day on 18 September each year).
After these events, a movement for total independence, under the command ofJosé Miguel Carrera (one of the most renowned patriots) and his two brothers Juan José andLuis Carrera, soon gained a wider following. Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during what was called theReconquista led to a prolonged struggle, including infighting fromBernardo O'Higgins, who challenged Carrera's leadership.
Intermittent warfare continued until 1817. With Carrera in prison in Argentina, O'Higgins and anti-Carrera cohortJosé de San Martín, hero of theArgentine War of Independence, ledan army thatcrossed the Andes into Chile and defeated the royalists. On 12 February 1818,Chile was proclaimed an independent republic. The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th-century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and theRoman Catholic Church. A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful.[37] Bernardo O'Higgins once planned to expand Chile by liberating thePhilippines from Spain and incorporating the islands. In this regard he tasked the Scottish naval officer, Lord Thomas Cochrane, in a letter dated 12 November 1821, expressing his plan to conquerGuayaquil, theGalapagos Islands, and thePhilippines. There were preparations, but the plan did not push through because O'Higgins was exiled.[45]
Territorial losses of the Republic of Chile de jure (by law) according to Chilean historiography[46]
Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by theOccupation of Araucanía. TheBoundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina confirmed Chilean sovereignty over theStrait of Magellan but also made the country to renounce to its claims in the rest of East Patagonia after adispute that started in 1842.[47] As a result of theWar of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuablenitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. Chile had joined the stand as one of the high-income countries in South America by 1870.[48]
On 9 September 1888, Chile took possession ofEaster Island by the signing of a mutual will agreement with the local king, thanks to the efforts of the Bishop of Tahiti, Monsignor José María Verdier since the island was constantly attacked by slave merchants. The naval officerPolicarpo Toro represented the Chilean Government andAtamu Tekena was the head of the Council of Rapanui. The Rapa Nui elders ceded sovereignty, without renouncing their titles as chiefs, the ownership of their lands, the validity of their culture and traditions on equal terms. The Rapa Nui sold nothing, they were integrated in equal conditions to Chile.[49]
The1891 Chilean Civil War brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established aparliamentary style democracy. However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards which had strong ties to foreign investors. Soon after, the country engaged in avastly expensive naval arms race withArgentina that nearly led to war, as well because of thePuna de Atacama dispute.
After the War of the Pacific, Chile became a Naval Power in the Americas, even sending a ship in protests in thePanama crisis of 1885 against the United States intervention in the then Colombian territory. The United States and Chile had theBaltimore crisis which almost became a war as Chile was a potential threat to the intentions of hegemony from the United States in the Western Hemisphere.[50]
The Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a rulingoligarchy. By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president,Arturo Alessandri, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. In the 1920s,Marxist groups with strong popular support arose.[37]
A military coup led by GeneralLuis Altamirano in 1924 set off a period of political instability that lasted until 1932. Of the ten governments that held power in that period, the longest lasting was that of GeneralCarlos Ibáñez del Campo, who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what was ade facto dictatorship (although not really comparable in harshness or corruption to the type of military dictatorship that have often bedeviled the rest of Latin America).[51][52]
By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology. When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period ofRadical Party dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez del Campo to office for another six years.Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez del Campo in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term.
The1964 presidential election ofChristian DemocratEduardo Frei Montalva by anabsolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, andagrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.[37]
In the 1970 election, SenatorSalvador Allende of theSocialist Party of Chile (then part of the "Popular Unity" coalition which included the Communists, Radicals, Social-Democrats, dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement, and the Independent Popular Action),[37] achieved a partial majority in aplurality of votes in a three-way contest, followed by candidates Radomiro Tomic for the Christian Democrat Party and Jorge Alessandri for the Conservative Party. Allende was not elected with an absolute majority, receiving fewer than 35% of the votes.
TheChilean Congress conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri, and, keeping with tradition, chose Allende by a vote of 153 to 35. Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not make common cause with the right wing.[53][54]
Aneconomic depression that began in 1972 was exacerbated bycapital flight, plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and unemployment rose. Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, to increase consumer spending and redistribute income downward.[55] Joint public-privatepublic works projects helped reduce unemployment.[56][page needed] Much of the banking sector wasnationalized. Many enterprises within thecopper, coal, iron,nitrate, and steel industries wereexpropriated, nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year.[56]
Allende's program included advancement of workers' interests,[56][57] replacing the judicial system with "socialist legality",[58] nationalization of banks and forcing others to bankruptcy,[58] and strengthening "popular militias" known as MIR.[58] Started under former President Frei, the Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of Chile's major copper mines in the form of a constitutional amendment. The measure was passed unanimously by Congress. As a result,[59] theRichard Nixon administrationorganized and inserted secret operatives in Chile, in order to swiftly destabilize Allende's government.[60] In addition, US financial pressure restricted international economic credit to Chile.[61]
The economic problems were also exacerbated by Allende's public spending, financed mostly through printing money, and by poor credit ratings given by commercial banks.[62]Simultaneously, opposition media, politicians, business guilds and other organizations helped to accelerate a campaign of domestic political and economical destabilization, some of which was backed by the United States.[61][63] By early 1973, inflation was out of control. On 26 May 1973, Chile's Supreme Court, which was opposed to Allende's government, unanimously denounced Allende'sdisruption of the legality of the nation. Although illegal under the Chilean constitution, the court supported and strengthened Pinochet's soon-to-be seizure of power.[58][64]
Amilitary coup overthrew Allende on 11 September 1973. As the armed forces bombarded thepresidential palace, Allende apparently committed suicide.[65][66] After the coup,Henry Kissinger toldU.S. presidentRichard Nixon that the United States had "helped" the coup[67] indirectly. According to the historian Sebastián Hurtado, there isn't documentary evidence to support that the United States Government acted actively in the coordination and execution of the September 11 coup actions by the Chilean Armed Forces, however, Richard Nixon's interest from the beginning was that the Allende government would not be consolidated and acted actively and decisively in the campaign to destabilize his government.[68][69] In 1970, when Allende was first elected, Henry Kissinger had stated "I don't see why we need to stand by and watch a country go Communist due to the irresponsibility of its own people".[70] There is no documentary evidence to support that the United States Government acted actively in the coordination and execution of the coup actions by the Chilean Armed Forces, however, Richard Nixon's interest from the beginning was that the Allende government would not be consolidated.[68]
A military junta, led by GeneralAugusto Pinochet, took control of the country. The years of the regime were marked byhuman rights violations. Chile actively participated inOperation Condor.[71] In October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by theCaravan of Death.[72] According to theRettig Report andValech Commission, at least 2,115 were killed,[73] and at least 27,265[74] were tortured (including 88 children younger than 12 years old).[74] In 2011, Chile recognized an additional 9,800 victims, bringing the total number of killed, tortured or imprisoned for political reasons to 40,018.[75] At the national stadium, filled with detainees, one of those tortured and killed was internationally known poet-singerVíctor Jara (see "Music and Dance", below).
A new Constitution was approved by a controversialplebiscite on 11 September 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an eight-year term. After Pinochet obtained rule of the country, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined theSandinista army inNicaragua, guerrilla forces inArgentina or training camps inCuba, Eastern Europe and Northern Africa.[76]
In the late 1980s, largely as a result of events such as the 1982 economic collapse[77] and masscivil resistance in 1983–88, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly,speech, and association, to include trade union and political activity.[78] The government launched market-oriented reforms withHernán Büchi as Minister of Finance. Chile moved toward afree market economy that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although thecopper industry and other important mineral resources were not opened to competition. In aplebiscite on 5 October 1988, Pinochet was denied a second eight-year term as president (56% against 44%). Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of abicameral congress on 14 December 1989. Christian DemocratPatricio Aylwin, the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called theConcertación, received an absolute majority of votes (55%).[79] President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period.
In December 1993, Christian DemocratEduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%).[80] Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by SocialistRicardo Lagos, who won the presidency in an unprecedentedrunoff election againstJoaquín Lavín of the rightistAlliance for Chile.[81] In January 2006, Chileans elected their first female president,Michelle Bachelet Jeria, of the Socialist Party, defeatingSebastián Piñera, of theNational Renewal party, extending theConcertación governance for another four years.[82][83] In January 2010, ChileanselectedSebastián Piñera as the first rightist President in 20 years, defeating former PresidentEduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle of theConcertación, for a four-year term succeeding Bachelet. Due to term limits,Sebastián Piñera did not stand for re-election in 2013, and his term expired in March 2014 resulting inMichelle Bachelet returning to office.[84] Sebastián Piñera succeeded Bachelet again in 2018 as thePresident of Chile after winning the December 2017 presidentialelection.[85][86]
On 27 February 2010, Chile was struck by an 8.8Mwearthquake, the fifth largest ever recorded at the time. More than 500 people died (most from the ensuingtsunami) and over a million people lost their homes. The earthquake was also followed by multiple aftershocks.[87] Initial damage estimates were in the range of US$15–30 billion, around 10% to 15% of Chile's real gross domestic product.[88]
Chile achieved global recognition for the successfulrescue of 33 trapped miners in 2010. On 5 August 2010, the access tunnel collapsed at the San José copper and gold mine in theAtacama Desert nearCopiapó in northern Chile, trapping 33 men 700 meters (2,300 ft) below ground. A rescue effort organized by the Chilean government located the miners 17 days later. All 33 men were brought to the surface two months later on 13 October 2010 over a period of almost 24 hours, an effort that was carried on live television around the world.[89]
2019–20 Chilean protests are a series of country-wide protests in response to a rise in theSantiago Metro's subway fare, the increasedcost of living,privatization andinequality prevalent in the country.[90] On 15 November, most of the political parties represented in the National Congress signed an agreement to call anational referendum in April 2020 regarding the creation of a new Constitution, later postponed to October due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.[91] On 25 October 2020, Chileans voted 78.28 per cent in favor of a new constitution, while 21.72 per cent rejected the change. Voter turnout was 51 percent. Anelection for the members of theConstitutional Convention was held in Chile between 15 and 16 May 2021.[92]
On 19 December 2021, a leftist candidate, the 35-year-old former student protest leaderGabriel Boric, won Chile's presidentialelection to become the country's youngest ever leader.[93] On 11 March 2022, Boric was sworn in as president to succeed outgoing President Sebastian Piñera.[94] Out of 24 members of Gabriel Boric's female-majority Cabinet, 14 are women.[95]
A long and narrow coastalSouthern Cone country on the west side of theAndes Mountains, Chile stretches over 4,300 km (2,670 mi) north to south, but only 350 km (217 mi) at its widest point east to west[100] and 64 km (40 mi) at its narrowest point east to west, with an average width of 175 km (109 mi). This encompasses a large variety of climates and landscapes. It contains 756,950 square kilometers (292,260 sq mi) of land area. It is situated within thePacific Ring of Fire. Excluding its Pacific islands and Antarctic claim, Chile lies between latitudes17° and56°S, and longitudes66° and75°W.
Chile is among the longest north–south countries in the world. If one considers only mainland territory, Chile is unique within this group in its narrowness from east to west, with the other long north–south countries (including Brazil, Russia, Canada, and the United States, among others) all being wider from east to west by a factor of more than 10. Chile also claims 1,250,000 km2 (480,000 sq mi) ofAntarctica as part of its territory (Chilean Antarctic Territory). However, this latter claim is suspended under the terms of theAntarctic Treaty, of which Chile is a signatory.[101] It is the world's southernmost country that is geographically on the mainland.[102]
Chile controlsEaster Island andSala y Gómez Island, the easternmost islands of Polynesia, which it incorporated to its territory in 1888, and theJuan Fernández Islands, more than 600 km (370 mi) from the mainland. Also controlled but only temporarily inhabited (by some local fishermen) are the small islands ofSan Ambrosio and San Felix. These islands are notable because they extend Chile's claim to territorial waters out from its coast into the Pacific Ocean.[103]
The northernAtacama Desert contains great mineral wealth, primarilycopper andnitrates. The relatively small Central Valley, which includes Santiago, dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area is also the historical center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it integrated the northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests, grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border.
Topography
Topographic map of Chile
Chile is located along a highlyseismic andvolcanic zone, part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, due to the subduction of theNazca and Antarctic plates in theSouth American Plate. In the latePaleozoic, 251 million years ago, Chile belonged to the continental block calledGondwana. It was just a depression that accumulated marine sediments began to rise at the end of the Mesozoic, 66 million years ago, due to the collision between the Nazca Plate and South American Plate, resulting in the Andes. The territory would be shaped over millions of years by the folding of the rocks, forming the current relief.
The Chilean relief consists of the central depression, which crosses the country longitudinally, flanked by two mountain ranges that make up about 80% of the territory: the Andes mountains to the east-natural border withBolivia andArgentina in theregion of Atacama and theCoastal Range west-minor height from the Andes. Chile's highest peak is theNevado Ojos del Salado, at 6891.3 m, which is also the highest volcano in the world. The highest point of the Coastal Range is Vicuña Mackenna, at 3114 meters, located in the Sierra Vicuña Mackenna, the south ofAntofagasta. Among the coastal mountains and the Pacific is a series of coastal plains, of variable length, which allow the settlement of coastal towns and big ports. Some areas of the plains territories encompass territory east of the Andes, and the Patagonian steppes and Magellan, or are high plateaus surrounded by high mountain ranges, such as the Altiplano or Puna de Atacama.
TheFar North is the area between the northern boundary of the country and theparallel 26° S, covering the first three regions. It is characterized by the presence of theAtacama desert, the most arid in the world. The desert is fragmented by streams that originate in the area known as thepampas Tamarugal. The Andes, split in two and whose eastern arm runs throughBolivia, has a high altitude and volcanic activity, which has allowed the formation of the Andean altiplano and salt structures as theSalar de Atacama, due to the gradual accumulation of sediments over time.
To the south is theNorte Chico, extending to theAconcagua river. Los Andes begin to decrease its altitude to the south and closer to the coast, reaching 90 km away at the height ofIllapel, the narrowest part of the Chilean territory. The two mountain ranges intersect, virtually eliminating the intermediate depression. The existence of rivers flowing through the territory allows the formation oftransverse valleys, where agriculture has developed strongly in recent times, while thecoastal plains begin to expand.
TheCentral area is the most populated region of the country. The coastal plains are wide and allow the establishment of cities and ports along the Pacific. The Andes maintain altitudes above 6000m but descend slowly in height to 4000 meters on average. The intermediate depression reappears becoming a fertile valley that allows agricultural development and human settlement, due to sediment accumulation. To the south, the Cordillera de la Costa reappears in therange of Nahuelbuta while glacial sediments create a series of lakes in the area ofLa Frontera.
Patagonia extends from within Reloncavi, at the height of parallel 41°S, to the south. During thelast glaciation, this area was covered by ice that strongly eroded Chilean relief structures. As a result, the intermediate depression sinks in the sea, while the coastal mountains rise to a series of archipelagos, such asChiloé and theChonos, disappearing in Taitao peninsula, in the parallel 47°S. The Andes mountain range loses height and erosion caused by the action of glaciers has causedfjords. East of the Andes, on the continent, or north of it, on theisland of Tierra del Fuego are located relatively flat plains, which in the Strait of Magellan cover large areas. The Andes, as he had done previously Cordillera de la Costa, begins to break in the ocean causing a myriad of islands and islets and disappear into it, sinking and reappearing in the Southern Antilles arc and then the Antarctic Peninsula, where it is called Antartandes, in the Chilean Antarctic Territory, lying between the meridians 53°W and 90°W.
In the middle of the Pacific, the country has sovereignty over several islands of volcanic origin, collectively known as Insular Chile. The archipelago of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island is located in the fracture zone between the Nazca plate and the Pacific plate known as East Pacific Rise.
The diverseclimate of Chile ranges from the world's driest desert in the north—theAtacama Desert—through aMediterranean climate in the center,tropical in Easter Island,[104] to anoceanic climate, includingalpine tundra andglaciers in the east and south.[21] According to theKöppen system, Chile within its borders hosts at least eighteen major climatic subtypes.[105] There are four seasons in most of the country: summer (December to February), autumn (March to May), winter (June to August), and spring (September to November).
Due to the characteristics of the territory, Chile is crossed by numerous rivers generally short in length and with low flow rates. They commonly extend from theAndes to the Pacific Ocean, flowing from East to West. Because of theAtacama desert, in the Norte Grande there are only shortendorheic character streams, except for theLoa River, the longest in the country 440 km.[106] In the high valleys, wetland areas generateChungará Lake, located at 4500 meters above sea level. It and theLauca River are shared withBolivia, as well as theLluta River. In the center-north of the country, the number of rivers that form valleys of agricultural importance increases. Noteworthy are the Elqui with 75 km[106] long, 142 km Aconcagua, Maipo with 250 km[106] and its tributary, the Mapocho with 110 km, and Maule with 240 km. Their waters mainly flow from Andean snowmelt in the summer and winter rains. The major lakes in this area are the artificial lake Rapel, the Colbun Maule lagoon and the lagoon of La Laja.
Climate change is expected to alter the frequency and severity of various natural hazards in Chile, including wildfires, floods, landslides, droughts and rising sea levels. Key sectors vulnerable to climate change impacts include agriculture, fisheries, agriculture and water security.[107]
The flora and fauna of Chile are characterized by a high degree of endemism, due to its particular geography. In continental Chile, theAtacama Desert in the north and theAndes mountains to the east are barriers that have led to the isolation of flora and fauna. Add to that the enormous length of Chile (over 4,300 km (2,672 mi)) and this results in a wide range of climates and environments that can be divided into three general zones: the desert provinces of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of the south.
The native flora of Chile consists of relatively fewer species compared to the flora of other South American countries. The northernmost coastal and central region is largely barren of vegetation, approaching the most absolute desert in the world.[108]
On the slopes of the Andes, in addition to the scattered tola desert brush, grasses are found. The central valley is characterized by several species of cacti, the hardyespinos, theChilean pine, thesouthern beeches and thecopihue, a red bell-shaped flower that is Chile's national flower.[108]
In southern Chile, south of the Biobío River, heavy precipitation has produced dense forests of laurels, magnolias, and various species of conifers and beeches, which become smaller and more stunted to the south.[109]
The cold temperatures and winds of the extreme south preclude heavy forestation. Grassland is found in EastMagallanes Province and northernTierra del Fuego (in Patagonia). Much of the Chilean flora is distinct from that of neighboring Argentina, indicating that the Andean barrier existed during its formation.[109]
Andean condor (Vultur gryphus), the national bird of Chile
Some of Chile's flora has an Antarctic origin due toland bridges which formed during the Cretaceous ice ages, allowing plants to migrate from Antarctica to South America.[110] Chile had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.37/10, ranking it 43rd globally out of 172 countries.[111]
Just over 3,000 species of fungi are recorded in Chile,[112][113] but this number is far from complete. The true total number of fungal species occurring in Chile is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7 percent of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.[114] Although the amount of available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Chile, and 1995 species have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the country.[115]
Chile's geographical isolation has restricted the immigration of faunal life so that only a few of the many distinctive South American animals are found. Among the larger mammals are thepuma or cougar, the llama-likeguanaco and the fox-likechilla. In the forest region, several types of marsupials and a small deer known as thepudu are found.[108]
There are many species of small birds, but most of the larger common Latin American types are absent. Few freshwater fish are native, but North American trout have been successfully introduced into the Andean lakes.[108] Owing to the vicinity of the Humboldt Current, ocean waters abound with fish and other forms of marine life, which in turn support a rich variety of waterfowl, including several penguins. Whales are abundant, and some six species of seals are found in the area.[108]
The currentConstitution of Chile was drafted byJaime Guzmán in 1980[116] and subsequently approved via a nationalplebiscite—regarded as "highly irregular" by some observers[28]—in September of that year, under the military dictatorship ofAugusto Pinochet. It entered into force in March 1981. After Pinochet's defeat in the1988 plebiscite, the constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution. In September 2005, PresidentRicardo Lagos signed into law several constitutional amendments passed by Congress. These include eliminating the positions of appointed senators andsenators for life, granting the President authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and reducing the presidential term from six to four years.[117]
Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a court of appeal, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and theSupreme Court of Chile. In June 2005, Chile completed a nationwide overhaul of its criminal justice system.[118] The reform has replaced inquisitorial proceedings with an adversarial system with greater similarity to that of common law jurisdictions such as the United States.
For parliamentary elections, between 1989 and 2013 thebinominal system was used, which promoted the establishment of two majority political blocs -Concertación andAlliance- at the expense of the exclusion of non-majority political groups. The opponents of this system approved in 2015 a moderateproportional electoral system that has been in force since the 2017 parliamentary elections, allowing the entry of new parties and coalitions. TheCongress of Chile has a 50-seatSenate and a 155-memberChamber of Deputies. Senators serve for eight years with staggered terms, while deputies are elected every 4 years. The last congressional elections were held on 21 November 2021, concurrently with the presidential election. The Congress is located in the port city ofValparaíso, about 140 kilometers (90 miles) west of the capital, Santiago.
The main existing political coalitions in Chile are:
Chile Vamos (Let's go Chile) is acenter-right coalition with roots of liberal conservatism, formed by the partiesRenovación Nacional (National Renewal),Unión Demócrata Independiente (Independent Democratic Union) andEvópoli. It has its origins in theAlliance coalition, formed by the main parties that supported the "YES" option in the1988 plebiscite, although it has used different names since then. It was the ruling coalition during the first and second government ofSebastián Piñera, (2010–2014) and (2018–2022).
In the National Congress, Chile Vamos has 52 deputies and 24 senators, while the parliamentary group of Apruebo Dignidad is formed by 37 deputies and 6 senators. Democratic Socialism is the third political force with 30 deputies and 13 senators. The other groups with parliamentary representation are theRepublican Party (15 deputies and 1 senator), theChristian Democratic Party (8 deputies and 5 senators), theParty of the People (8 deputies) and theindependents outside of a coalition (5 deputies and 1 senator).
State of Chile's international relations in the world:
Chile
Country with diplomatic relations and Chilean embassy in the country.
Country with diplomatic relations and an embassy in Chile, but no Chilean embassy.
Country with diplomatic relations but without ambassadors.
Country with no diplomatic relations currently.
Since the early decades after independence, Chile has always had an active involvement in foreign affairs. In 1837, the country aggressively challenged the dominance of Peru's port ofCallao for preeminence in the Pacific trade routes, defeating the short-lived alliance between Peru and Bolivia, thePeru–Bolivian Confederation (1836–39) in theWar of the Confederation. The war dissolved the confederation while distributing power in the Pacific. A second international war, theWar of the Pacific (1879–83), further increased Chile's regional role, while adding considerably to its territory.[28]
During the 19th century, Chile's commercial ties were primarily with Britain, a nation that had a major influence on the formation of the Chilean navy. The French, influenced Chile's legal and educational systems and had a decisive impact on Chile, through the architecture of the capital in the boom years at the turn of the 20th century. German influence came from the organization and training of the army byPrussians.[28]
On 26 June 1945, Chile participated as a founding member of the United Nations being among 50 countries that signed theUnited Nations Charter in San Francisco, California.[119][120] With the military coup of 1973, Chile became isolated politically as a result of widespread human rights abuses.[28]
Since its return to democracy in 1990, Chile has been an active participant in the international political arena. Chile completed a two-year non-permanent position on the UN Security Council in January 2005. Jose Miguel Insulza, a Chilean national, was elected Secretary General of the Organization of American States in May 2005 and confirmed in his position, being re-elected in 2009. Chile is currently serving on the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Board of Governors, and the 2007–2008 chair of the board is Chile's ambassador to the IAEA, Milenko E. Skoknic. The country is an active member of the UN family of agencies and participates in UN peacekeeping activities. It wasre-elected as a member of theUN Human Rights Council in 2011 for a three-year term.[121] It was alsoelected to one of five non-permanent seats on theUN Security Council in 2013.[122] Chile hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002 and the APEC summit and related meetings in 2004. It also hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial in April 2005 and the Ibero-American Summit in November 2007. An associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC, Chile has been a major player in international economic issues and hemispheric free trade.[37]
The Armed Forces of Chile are subject to civilian control exercised by the president through the Minister of Defense. The president has the authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces.[37]
The commander-in-chief of theChilean Army isArmy GeneralRicardo Martínez Menanteau. The Chilean Army is 45,000 strong and is organized with an Army headquarters in Santiago, six divisions throughout its territory, an Air Brigade inRancagua, and a Special Forces Command inColina. The Chilean Army is one of the most professional and technologically advanced armies in Latin America.[37]
AdmiralJulio Leiva Molina directs the around 25,000-personChilean Navy,[123] including 2,500 Marines. Of the fleet of 29 surface vessels, only eight are operational major combatants (frigates). Those ships are based inValparaíso.[124] The Navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no Navy fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates four submarines based inTalcahuano.[37][125]
Air Force General (four-star) Jorge Rojas Ávila heads the 12,500-strongChilean Air Force. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The Air Force also operatesan airbase onKing George Island, Antarctica. The Air Force took delivery of the final two of ten F-16s, all purchased from the U.S., in March 2007 after several decades of U.S. debate and previous refusal to sell. Chile also took delivery in 2007 of a number of reconditioned Block 15 F-16s from the Netherlands, bringing to 18 the total of F-16s purchased from the Dutch.[37]
After the military coup in September 1973, theChilean national police (Carabineros) were incorporated into the Defense Ministry. With the return of democratic government, the police were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remained under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry. Gen. Gustavo González Jure is the head of the national police force of 40,964[126] men and women who are responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile.[37]
Each region was designated by a name and aRoman numeral assigned from north to south, except for theSantiago Metropolitan Region, which did not have a number. The creation of two new regions in 2007, Arica and Parinacota (XV) and Los Ríos (XIV), and a third region in 2018, Ñuble (XVI) made this numbering lose its original order meaning.
(1) Including the Chilean Antarctic Territory, its surface reaches 1 382 554,8 km2
(2) Including the Chilean Antarctic Territory, its surface reaches 2 006 360 km2
National symbols
The national flower is thecopihue (Lapageria rosea, Chileanbellflower), which grows in the woods of southern Chile.
Thecoat of arms depicts the two national animals: thecondor (Vultur gryphus, a very large bird that lives in the mountains) and thehuemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus, an endangered white tail deer). It also has the legendPor la razón o la fuerza (By reason or by force).
Theflag of Chile consists of two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; there is a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center representing a guide to progress and honor; blue symbolizes the sky, white is for the snow-covered Andes, and red stands for the blood spilled to achieve independence. The flag of Chile is similar to theFlag of Texas, although the Chilean flag is 21 years older. However, like the Texan flag, the flag of Chile is modeled after theflag of the United States.[135]
The think tankThe Heritage Foundation states that Chile has the highest degree ofeconomic freedom in South America (ranking 22nd worldwide), owing to its independent and efficient judicial system and prudent public finance management.[139] In May 2010 Chile became the first South American country to join theOECD.[140] In 2006, Chile became the country with the highest nominal GDP per capita in Latin America.[141] As of 2020, Chile ranks third in Latin America (behind Uruguay and Panama) in nominal GDP per capita.
Copper mining makes up 20% of Chilean GDP and 60% of exports.[142]Escondida is the largest copper mine in the world, producing over 5% of global supplies.[142] Overall, Chile produces a third of the world's copper.[142]Codelco, the state mining firm, competes with private copper mining companies.[142]
Sound economic policies, maintained consistently since the 1980s, have contributed to steady economic growth in Chile and have more than halved poverty rates.[143][37] Chile began to experience a moderate economic downturn in 1999. The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 4.0% GDP growth.[144] The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6%. Real GDP growth reached 5.7% in 2005 before falling back to 4% in 2006. GDP expanded by 5% in 2007.[37] Faced with thefinancial crisis of 2007–2008 the government announced an economic stimulus plan to spur employment and growth, and despite theGreat Recession, aimed for an expansion of between 2% and 3% of GDP for 2009. Nonetheless, economic analysts disagreed with government estimates and predicted economic growth at a median of 1.5%.[145] Real GDP growth in 2012 was 5.5%. Growth slowed to 4.1% in the first quarter of 2013.[146]
The unemployment rate was 7.8% in 2022, according toThe World Bank.[147] There are reported labor shortages in agriculture, mining, and construction.[146] The percentage of Chileans with per capita household incomes below the poverty line—defined as twice the cost of satisfying a person's minimal nutritional needs—fell from 45.1% in 1987 to 11.5% in 2009, according to government surveys.[148][149] Critics in Chile, however, argue that true poverty figures are considerably higher than those officially published.[150] Using the relative yardstick favoured in many European countries, 27% of Chileans would be poor, according to Juan Carlos Feres of theECLAC.[151]
As of November 2012[update], about 11.1 million people (64% of the population) benefit from government welfare programs,[152][clarification needed] via the "Social Protection Card", which includes the population living in poverty and those at a risk of falling into poverty.[153]The privatized national pension system (AFP) has encouraged domestic investment and contributed to an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 21% of GDP.[154] Under the compulsory private pension system, most formal sector employees pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds.[37]
Chile has signedfree trade agreements (FTAs) with a whole network of countries, including an FTA with the United States that was signed in 2003 and implemented in January 2004.[155] Internal Government of Chile figures show that even when factoring out inflation and the recent high price of copper, bilateral trade between the U.S. and Chile has grown over 60% since then.[37] Chile's total trade with China reached US$8.8 billion in 2006, representing nearly 66% of the value of its trade relationship with Asia.[37] Exports to Asia increased from US$15.2 billion in 2005 to US$19.7 billion in 2006, a 29.9% increase.[37] Year-on-year growth of imports was especially strong from a number of countries: Ecuador (123.9%), Thailand (72.1%), South Korea (52.6%), and China (36.9%).[37]
Chile's approach to foreign direct investment is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law. Registration is reported to be simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the officialforeign exchange market to repatriate their profits and capital.[37]The Chilean Government has formed a Council on Innovation and Competition, hoping to bring in additional FDI to new parts of the economy.[37]
Standard & Poor's gives Chile acredit rating of A.[156] The Government of Chile continues to pay down its foreign debt, with public debt only 3.9% of GDP at the end of 2006.[37] The Chilean central government is a net creditor with anet asset position of 7% of GDP at end 2012.[146] Thecurrent account deficit was 4% in the first quarter of 2013, financed mostly by foreign direct investment.[146] 14% of central government revenue came directly from copper in 2012.[146] Chile was ranked 1st in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[157]
Chile is rich in mineral resources, especially copper and lithium. It is thought that due to the importance of lithium for batteries for electric vehicles and stabilization of electric grids with large proportions of intermittent renewables in the electricity mix, Chile could be strengthened geopolitically. However, this perspective has also been criticized for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production in other parts of the world.[158]
The country was, in 2019, the world's largest producer ofcopper,[159]iodine[160] andrhenium,[161] the second largest producer oflithium[162] andmolybdenum,[163] the sixth largest producer ofsilver,[164] the seventh largest producer ofsalt,[165] the eighth largest producer ofpotash,[166] the thirteenth producer ofsulfur[167] and the thirteenth producer ofiron ore[168] in the world. In 2023, it was fourth largest silver producer globally.[169] The country also has considerablegold production: between 2006 and 2017, the country produced annual amounts ranging from 35.9 tonnes in 2017 to 51.3 tonnes in 2013,[170] where the gold production in 2015 is 43 metric tonnes.[171]
Agriculture in Chile encompasses a wide range of different activities due to its particulargeography,climate andgeology and human factors. Historically agriculture is one of the bases of Chile's economy. Now agriculture and allied sectors likeforestry,logging andfishing account for only 4.9% of theGDP as of 2007[update] and employ 13.6% of the country's labor force. Chile is one of the 5 largest world producers ofcherry andblueberry, and one of the 10 largest world producers ofgrape,apple,kiwi,peach,plum andhazelnut, focusing on exporting high-value fruits.[172] Some other major agriculture products of Chile includepears,onions,wheat,maize,oats,garlic,asparagus,beans,beef,poultry,wool,fish,timber andhemp. Due to its geographical isolation and strict customs policies Chile is free from diseases and pests such asmad cow disease,fruit fly andPhylloxera. This, its location in theSouthern Hemisphere, which has quite different harvesting times from theNorthern Hemisphere, and its wide range of agriculture conditions are considered Chile's main comparative advantages. However, Chile's mountainous landscape limits the extent and intensity of agriculture so that arable land corresponds only to 2.62% of the total territory. Chile currently utilizes 14,015 Hectares of agricultural land.[173]
Chile is the world's second largest producer ofsalmon, after Norway. In 2019, it was responsible for 26% of the global supply.[174] Inwine, Chile is usually among the 10 largest producers in the world. In 2018 it was in 6th place.[175]
Tourism in Chile has experienced sustained growth over the last few decades. In 2005, tourism grew by 13.6%, generating more than 4.5 billion dollars of which 1.5 billion was attributed to foreign tourists. According to the National Service of Tourism (Sernatur), 2 million people a year visit the country. Most of these visitors come from other countries in the American continent, mainlyArgentina; followed by a growing number from the United States, Europe, and Brazil with a growing number of Asians fromSouth Korea and China.[176]
The main attractions for tourists are places of natural beauty situated in the extreme zones of the country:San Pedro de Atacama, in the north, is very popular with foreign tourists who arrive to admire the Incaic architecture, the altiplano lakes, and theValley of the Moon.[citation needed] InPutre, also in the north, there is theChungará Lake, as well as theParinacota and thePomerape volcanoes, with altitudes of 6,348 m and 6,282 m, respectively. Throughout the central Andes there are many ski resorts of international repute,[citation needed] includingPortillo,Valle Nevado andTermas de Chillán.
For locals, tourism is concentrated mostly in the summer (December to March), and mainly in the coastal beach towns.[179]Arica,Iquique,Antofagasta,La Serena andCoquimbo are the main summer centers in the north, and Pucón on the shores ofLake Villarrica is the main center in the south. Because of its proximity to Santiago, the coast of the Valparaíso Region, with its many beach resorts, receives the largest number of tourists.Viña del Mar, Valparaíso's more affluent northern neighbor, is popular because of its beaches,casino, and its annualsong festival, the most important musical event in Latin America.[citation needed]Pichilemu in theO'Higgins Region is widely known as South America's "bestsurfing spot" according toFodor's.[citation needed]
In November 2005 the government launched a campaign under the brand "Chile: All Ways Surprising" intended to promote the country internationally for both business and tourism.[180]Museums in Chile such as theChilean National Museum of Fine Arts built in 1880, feature works byChilean artists.
Chile is home to the world-renownedPatagonian Trail that resides on the border between Argentina and Chile. Chile recently launched a massive scenic route for tourism in hopes of encouraging development based on conservation. The Route of Parks covers 1,740 miles (2,800 km) and was designed by Tompkin Conservation (foundersDouglas Tompkins and wifeKristine).[181]
Due to Chile's topography a functioning transport network is vital to its economy. In 2020, Chile had 85,984 km (53,428 mi) ofhighways, with 21,289 km (13,228 mi) paved.[182] In the same year, the country had 3,347 km (2,080 mi) ofduplicated highways, the second largest network in South America, after Brazil.[183] Since the mid-1990s, there has been a significant improvement in the country's roads, through bidding processes that allowed the construction of an efficient road network, with emphasis on the duplication of continuous 1,950 km (1,212 mi) of thePanamerican Highway (Chile Route 5) betweenPuerto Montt andCaldera (in addition to the planned duplication in the Atacama Desert area),[184] the excerpts in between Santiago, Valparaiso and the Central Coast, and the northern access to Concepción and the large project of the Santiago urbanhighways network, opened between 2004 and 2006.[185] Buses are now the main means of long-distance transportation in Chile, following the decline of its railway network.[186] The bus system covers the entire country, fromArica toSantiago (a 30-hour journey) and from Santiago toPunta Arenas (about 40 hours, with a change atOsorno).
Chile has a telecommunication system which covers much of the country, including Chilean insular and Antarctic bases. Privatization of the telephone system began in 1988; Chile has one of the most advanced telecommunications infrastructure in South America with a modern system based on extensive microwave radio relay facilities and a domestic satellite system with 3 earth stations.[143] In 2012, there were 3.276 million main lines in use and 24.13 million mobile cellular telephone subscribers.[143]
According to a 2012 database of theInternational Telecommunication Union (ITU), 61.42% of the Chilean population uses the internet, making Chile the country with the highest internet penetration in South America.[187]
The Chilean internet country code is ".cl".[188] In 2017 the government of Chile launched its firstcyber security strategy, which receives technical support from theOrganization of American States (OAS) Cyber Security Program of the Inter-American Committee against Terrorism (CICTE).[189]
Chile'stotal energy supply (TES) was 23.0GJ per capita in 2020.[190] Energy in Chile is dominated by fossil fuels, with coal, oil and gas accounting for 73.4% of the total primary energy. Biofuels and waste account for another 20.5% of primary energy supply, with the rest sourced from hydro and other renewables.[190]
In 2021, Chile had, in terms of installed renewable electricity, 6,807 MW in hydropower (28th largest in the world), 3,137 MW in wind power (28th largest in the world), 4,468 MW in solar (22nd largest in the world), and 375 MW in biomass.[191] As the Atacama Desert has the highestsolar irradiation in the world, and Chile has always had problems obtaining oil, gas and coal (the country basically does not produce them, so it has to import them), renewable energy is seen as the solution for the country's shortcomings in the energy field.[192][193]
In 2023 Chile emitted 107.99 million tonnes ofgreenhouse gases, equivalent to around 0.2% of the global total.[194] In recent years Chile has emerged as a global leader in clean energy, particularly solar and wind.[195] and has committed to net zero by 2050. According to Climate Action Tracker, the nation is making "considerable progress" in climate action by expanding renewables and phasing-out coal.[196]
Chile's 2017 census reported a population of 17,574,003. Its rate of population growth has been decreasing since 1990, due to a decliningbirth rate.[197] By 2050 the population is expected to reach approximately 20.2 million people.[198]
In 1984, a study calledSociogenetic Reference Framework for Public Health Studies in Chile, from the Revista de Pediatría de Chile determined an ancestry of 67.9% European, and 32.1% Native American.[201][202] In 1994, a biological study determined that the Chilean composition was 64% European and 35% Amerindian.[203] The recent study in the Candela Project establishes that the genetic composition of Chile is 52% of European origin, with 44% of the genome coming from Native Americans (Amerindians), and 4% coming from Africa, making Chile a primarily mestizo country with traces of African descent present in half of the population.[204] Another genetic study conducted by theUniversity of Brasília in several South American countries shows a similar genetic composition for Chile, with a European contribution of 51.6%, an Amerindian contribution of 42.1%, and an African contribution of 6.3%.[205] In 2015 another study established genetic composition in 57% European, 38% Native American, and 2.5% African.[206]
A public health booklet from theUniversity of Chile states that 35% of the population is of Caucasian origin; "predominantly White" Mestizos are estimated to amount to a total of 65%, while Native Americans (Amerindians) comprise the remaining 5%.[207]
Despite the genetic considerations, many Chileans, if asked, would self-identify as White. The 2011Latinobarómetro survey asked respondents in Chile what race they considered themselves to belong to. Most answered "White" (59%), while 25% said "Mestizo" and 8% self-classified as "indigenous".[208] A 2002 national poll revealed that a majority of Chileans believed they possessed some (43.4%) or much (8.3%) "indigenous blood", while 40.3% responded that they had none.[209]
Chile is one of 22 countries to have signed and ratified the only binding international law concerning indigenous peoples, theIndigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.[210] It was adopted in 1989 as theInternational Labour Organization (ILO) Convention 169. Chile ratified it in 2008. A Chilean court decision in November 2009, considered to be a landmark ruling on indigenous rights, made use of the convention. The Supreme Court decision on Aymara water rights upheld rulings by both the Pozo Almonte tribunal and the Iquique Court of Appeals and marks the first judicial application of ILO Convention 169 in Chile.[211]
The earliestEuropean immigrants were Spanish colonizers who arrived in the 16th century.[212] The Amerindian population of central Chile was absorbed into theSpanish settler population in the beginning of the colonial period to form the largemestizo population that exists in Chile today; mestizos create modern middle and lower classes. In the 18th and 19th centuries, manyBasques came to Chile where they integrated into the existing elites ofCastilian origin. Postcolonial Chile was never a particularly attractive destination for migrants, owing to its remoteness and distance from Europe.[213][214] Europeans preferred to stay in countries closer to their homelands instead of taking the long journey through the Straits of Magellan or crossing the Andes.[213] European migration did not result in a significant change in the ethnic composition of Chile, except in theregion of Magellan.[215] Spaniards were the only major European migrant group to Chile,[213] and there was never large-scale immigration such as that to Argentina or Brazil.[214] Between 1851 and 1924, Chile only received 0.5% of European immigration to Latin America, compared to 46% to Argentina, 33% to Brazil, 14% to Cuba, and 4% to Uruguay.[213] However, it is undeniable that immigrants have played a significant role in Chilean society.[214]
Immigrants to Chile during the 19th and 20th centuries came from France,[216]Great Britain,[217] Germany,[218] andCroatia,[219] among others. Descendants of differentEuropean ethnic groups often intermarried in Chile. This intermarriage and mixture of cultures and races have helped to shape the present society and culture of the Chilean middle and upper classes.[220] Also, roughly 500,000 of Chile's population is of full or partialPalestinian origin,[221][222] and 800,000 Arab descents.[223] Chile currently has 1.5 million of Latin American immigrants, mainly fromVenezuela,Peru,Haiti,Colombia,Bolivia andArgentina; 8% of the total population in 2019, without counting descendants.[224][225] According to the 2002 national census, Chile's foreign-born population has increased by 75% since 1992.[226] As of November 2021, numbers of people entering Chile from elsewhere in Latin America have grown swiftly in the last decade, tripling in the last three years to 1.5 million, with arrivals stemming from humanitarian crises in Haiti (ca. 180,000) and Venezuela (ca 460,000).[227]
Urbanization
About 85% of the country's population lives in urban areas, with 40% living inGreater Santiago. The largest agglomerations according to the 2002 census are Greater Santiago with 5.6 million people,Greater Concepción with 861,000andGreater Valparaíso with 824,000.[228]
Historically, theindigenous peoples in Chile observed a variety of religions before theSpanish conquest in the 16th century. DuringSpanish rule and the first century of Chilean independence, theCatholic Church was one of the most powerful institutions in the country. In the late 19th century, liberal policies (the so-calledLeyes laicas or "lay laws") started to reduce the influence of the clergy and the promulgation of anew Constitution in 1925 established theseparation of church and state.[232]
As of 2012[update], 66.6%[233] of Chilean population over 15 years of age claimed to adhere to the Roman Catholic church, a decrease from the 70%[234] reported in the 2002 census. In the same census of 2012, 17% of Chileans reported adherence to an Evangelical church ("Evangelical" in the census referred to all Christian denominations other than the Roman Catholic andOrthodox—Greek, Persian, Serbian, Ukrainian, and Armenian—churches,the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,Seventh-day Adventists, andJehovah's Witnesses: essentially, those denominations generally still termed "Protestant" in most English-speaking lands, althoughAdventism is often considered an Evangelical denomination as well). Approximately 90% of Evangelical Christians arePentecostal. butWesleyan,Lutheran,Anglican,Episcopalian,Presbyterian,other Reformed,Baptist, andMethodist churches also are present amongst Chilean Evangelical churches.[235] Irreligious people, atheists, and agnostics account for around 12% of the population.
By 2015, the major religion in Chile remained Christianity (68%), with an estimated 55% of Chileans belonging to the Roman Catholic church, 13% to various Evangelical churches, and just 7% adhering to any other religion. Agnostics and atheist were estimated at 25% of the population.[236]
Chile has aBaháʼí religious community, and is home to the Baháʼí mother temple, or continentalHouse of Worship, for Latin America. Completed in 2016, it serves as a space for people of all religions and backgrounds to gather, meditate, reflect, and worship.[237] It is formed from cast glass and translucent marble and has been described as innovative in its architectural style.[238]
The Constitution guarantees the right tofreedom of religion, and other laws and policies contribute to generally free religious practice. The law at all levels fully protects this right against abuse by either governmental or private actors.[235] Church and state are officiallyseparate in Chile. A 1999 law on religion prohibitsreligious discrimination. However, the Roman Catholic church for mostly historical and social reasons enjoys a privileged status and occasionally receives preferential treatment.[239] Government officials attend Roman Catholic events as well as major Evangelical and Jewish ceremonies.[235]
TheSpanish spoken in Chile is distinctively accented and quite unlike that of neighboring South American countries because final syllables are often dropped, and some consonants have a soft pronunciation.[clarification needed] Accent varies only very slightly from north to south; more noticeable are the differences in accent based on social class or whether one lives in the city or the country. That the Chilean population was largely formed in a small section at the center of the country and then migrated in modest numbers to the north and south helps explain this relative lack of differentiation, which was maintained by the national reach of radio, and now television, which also helps to diffuse and homogenize colloquial expressions.[37]
There are several indigenous languages spoken in Chile:Mapudungun,Aymara,Rapa Nui,Chilean Sign Language and (barely surviving)Qawasqar andYaghan, along with non-indigenous German, Italian, English, Greek andQuechua. After the Spanish conquest, Spanish took over as thelingua franca and the indigenous languages have become minority languages, with some now extinct or close to extinction.[245]
German is still spoken to some extent in southern Chile,[246] either in small countryside pockets or as a second language among the communities of larger cities.
Through initiatives such as theEnglish Opens Doors Program, the government made English mandatory for students in fifth grade and above in public schools. Most private schools in Chile start teaching English from kindergarten.[247] Common English words have been absorbed and appropriated into everyday Spanish speech.[248]
TheMinistry of Health (Minsal) is the cabinet-level administrative office in charge of planning, directing, coordinating, executing, controlling and informing the public health policies formulated by the President of Chile. TheNational Health Fund (Fonasa), created in 1979, is the financial entity entrusted to collect, manage and distribute state funds for health in Chile. It is funded by the public. All employees pay 7% of their monthly income to the fund.[249]
Fonasa is part of the NHSS and has executive power through theMinistry of Health (Chile). Its headquarters are inSantiago and decentralized public service is conducted by various Regional Offices. More than 12 million beneficiaries benefit from Fonasa. Beneficiaries can also opt for more costly private insurance throughIsapre.
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index, Chile is one of 22 countries with a GHI score of less than 5.[250]
In Chile, education begins withpreschool until the age of 5.Primary school is provided for children between ages 6 and 13. Students then attendsecondary school until graduation at age 17.
Secondary education is divided into two parts: During the first two years, students receive a general education. Then, they choose a branch: scientific humanistic education, artistic education, or technical and professional education. Secondary school ends two years later on the acquirement of a certificate (licencia de enseñanza media).[251]
Chilean education is segregated by wealth in a three-tiered system – the quality of the schools reflects socioeconomic backgrounds:
city schools (colegios municipales) that are mostly free and have the worst education results, mostly attended by poor students;
subsidized schools that receive some money from the government which can be supplemented by fees paid by the student's family, which are attended by mid-income students and typically get mid-level results; and
entirely private schools that consistently get the best results. Many private schools charge attendance fees of 0,5 to 1 median household income.[252]
From the period between early agricultural settlements and up to the late pre-Columbian period, northern Chile was a region of Andean culture that was influenced by altiplano traditions spreading to the coastal valleys of the north, while southern regions were areas of Mapuche cultural activities. Throughout the colonial period following the conquest, and during the early Republican period, the country's culture was dominated by the Spanish. Other European influences, primarily English, French, and German began in the 19th century and have continued to this day. German migrants influenced the Bavarian style rural architecture and cuisine in the south of Chile in cities such asValdivia,Frutillar,Puerto Varas,Osorno,Temuco,Puerto Octay,Llanquihue,Faja Maisan,Pitrufquén,Victoria,Pucón andPuerto Montt.[254][255][256][257]
Music and dance
Los Jaivas, one of the most recognized Chilean rock bands
Music in Chile ranges from folkloric, popular and classical music. Its large geography generates different musical styles in the north, center and south of the country, including also Easter Island and Mapuche music.[258] The national dance is thecueca. Another form of traditional Chilean song, though not a dance, is thetonada. Arising from music imported by the Spanish colonists, it is distinguished from the cueca by an intermediate melodic section and a more prominent melody.
Chile is acountry of poets.[260]Gabriela Mistral was the first Latin American to receive aNobel Prize in Literature (1945). Chile's most famous poet isPablo Neruda, who received the Nobel Prize for Literature (1971) and is world-renowned for his extensive library of works on romance, nature, and politics. His three highly personalized homes inIsla Negra, Santiago and Valparaíso are popular tourist destinations.
Chilean cuisine is a reflection of the country's topographical variety, featuring an assortment of seafood, beef, fruits, and vegetables. Traditional recipes includeasado,cazuela,empanadas,humitas,pastel de choclo, pastel de papas,curanto, andsopaipillas.[265]Crudos is an example of the mixture of culinary contributions from the various ethnic influences in Chile. The raw mincedllama, heavy use of shellfish, and rice bread were taken from nativeQuechua Andean cuisine, (although beef, brought to Chile by Europeans, is also used in place of the llama meat), lemon and onions were brought by the Spanish colonists, and the use ofmayonnaise andyogurt was introduced by German immigrants, as wasbeer.
The folklore of Chile, cultural and demographic characteristics of the country, is the result of the mixture of Spanish and Amerindian elements that occurred during the colonial period. Due to cultural and historical reasons, they are classified and distinguished four major areas in the country: northern areas, central, southern and south. Most of the traditions of theculture of Chile have a festive purpose, but some, such as dances and ceremonies, have religious components.[266]
The main football clubs areColo-Colo,Universidad de Chile andUniversidad Católica. Colo-Colo is the country's most successful football club, having both the most national and international championships, including the covetedCopa Libertadores South American club tournament. Universidad de Chile was the last international champion (Copa Sudamericana 2011).
Tennis is Chile's most successful sport. Itsnational team won theWorld Team Cup clay tournament twice (2003 & 2004), and played theDavis Cup final against Italy in 1976. At the2004 Summer Olympics the country captured gold and bronze in men's singles and gold in men's doubles (Nicolás Massú obtained two gold medals).Marcelo Ríos became the first Latin American man to reach the number one spot in theATP singles rankings in 1998.Anita Lizana won theUS Open in 1937, becoming the first woman from Latin America to win aGrand Slam tournament.Luis Ayala was twice a runner-up at the French Open and both Ríos andFernando González reached the Australian Open men's singles finals. González also won a silver medal in singles at the2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.
At the Summer Olympic Games Chile boasts a total of two gold medals (tennis), seven silver medals (athletics,equestrian,boxing, shooting and tennis) and four bronze medals (tennis, boxing and football). In 2012, Chile won its first Paralympic Games medal (gold in Athletics).
Rodeo is the country'snational sport and is practiced in the more rural areas of the nation. A sport similar tohockey calledchueca was played by the Mapuche people during the Spanish conquest.Skiing andsnowboarding are practiced at ski centers located in the Central Andes, and in southern ski centers near to cities as Osorno, Puerto Varas, Temuco and Punta Arenas.Surfing is popular at some coastal towns.Polo is professionally practiced within Chile, with the country achieving top prize in the 2008 and 2015World Polo Championship.
Thecultural heritage of Chile consists, first, of its intangible heritage, composed of various cultural events and activities, such as visual arts, crafts, dances, holidays, cuisine, games, music and traditions. Secondly, its tangible heritage consists of those buildings, objects and sites of archaeological, architectural, traditional, artistic, ethnographic, folkloric, historical, religious or technological significance scattered through Chilean territory. Among them, some are declaredWorld Heritage Sites byUNESCO, in accordance with the provisions of the Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972, ratified by Chile in 1980. These cultural sites are theRapa Nui National Park (1995), theChurches of Chiloé (2000),the historical district of the port city of Valparaíso (2003),Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works (2005) and the mining citySewell (2006).
In 1999Cultural Heritage Day was established as a way to honour and commemorate Chile's cultural heritage. It is an official national event celebrated in May every year.[268]
^InChilean Spanish, pronunciation ranges from[ˈʃile] ~[ˈt͡ʃiːle] on a spectrum from lower to upper classes, respectively, the former being a somewhat-stigmatizedbasilect. See the "Sample" section for anIPA-transcribed text in a lower-class form of the dialect.
^ab"Compendio estadístico 2006"(PDF). Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas. October 2006.Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved29 November 2007.
^"Chile".Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Online. 2005. Archived fromthe original on 21 July 2002. Retrieved2 March 2005.The name Chile is of Native American origin, meaning possibly 'ends of the earth' or simply 'sea gulls'.
^abThis article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Chile".Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.derived, it is said, from the Quichua chiri, cold, or tchili, snow
^"Chile (república)".Enciclopedia Microsoft Encarta Online. 2005. Archived fromthe original on 10 May 2008. Retrieved26 February 2005.The region was then known to its native population as Tchili, a Native American word meaning 'snow'.
^Pearson, Neale J. (2004)."Chile".Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Scholastic Library Publishing. Archived fromthe original on 10 February 1999. Retrieved2 March 2005.Chile's name comes from an Indian word, Tchili, meaning 'the deepest point of the Earth'.
^de Olivares, Miguel; González, SJ (1864) [1736]. "Historia de la Compañía de Jesús en Chile".Colección de historiadores de Chile y documentos relativos a la historia nacional. Vol. 4. Santiago: Imprenta del Ferrocarril.
^Eyzaguirre, Jaime (1967).Breve historia de las fronteras de Chile. Editorial Universitaria.
^Lagos Carmona, Guillermo (1985).Los Títulos Históricos: Historia de Las Fronteras de Chile. Andrés Bello.(p. 197) We note that the Loa river is at 22 degrees and that Baleato, in 1793, indicated 21.5 degrees for the beginning of the Kingdom of Chile, with the Loa at its mouth in the Pacific. (...) (p. 540) According to the Map of Cano y Olmedilla, the limit of the Kingdom of Chile "(...) through the desert of Atacama (...) From here it turns to the S., S.E., S.E., and S., keeping in general this last course until near the 29° parallel, from where it takes a S.E. direction. SE. and S., generally keeping this last course until the vicinity of the 29° parallel, from where it takes a S.E. direction, skirting to the east the 'Province of Cuyo' which, of course, appears to be included in the territory of the Kingdom of Chile. In the latitude of 32°30' the line turns to the S.W. until reaching the Quinto river, which, as the legend says 'communicates by channels with the Saladillo in time of floods'. It follows the river down to the meridian 316°, counting to the E. of Tenerife, where it turns a stretch until it reaches the Hueuque-Leuvu river (or Barrancas river) at 371/2° latitude. From here it runs along the river for a stretch to the S.E., and then turns to the E. and falls into the Atlantic Sea in the vicinity of parallel 37° between Cape Lobos and Cape Corrientes", "a little north of the current Mar del Plata". (...) (p. 543) In this document it is seen that those of the province of Cuyo end to the south at the source of the Diamante River, and that from that point to the east, the dividing line goes to the point where the Quinto River crosses the road that goes from Santiago to Buenos Aires.
^Silva Castro, Raúl (1953).Censo de 1813. Santiago: Imprenta Chile. p. 370.Archived from the original on 18 August 2024. Retrieved18 August 2024 – via Biblioteca Nacional de Chile.
^abcDe Vylder, Stefan (5 March 2009).Allende's Chile: The Political Economy of the Rise and Fall of the Unidad Popular. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-10757-0.
^"Report on CIA Chilean Task Force activities".Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents relating to the Military Coup, 1970–1976. The National Security Archive: Electronic Briefing Books (George Washington University).Archived from the original on 11 February 2010. Retrieved11 March 2010.
^Valenzuela, C. (1984). "Marco de referencia sociogenético para los estudios de Salud Pública en Chile" [Sociogenetic reference limits for public health studies in Chile].Revista Chilena de Pediatría (in Spanish).55 (2):123–127.PMID6473850.S2CID162443939.
^H., Smith, Brian (2014).The Church and Politics in Chile Challenges to Modern Catholicism. Princeton University Press.ISBN978-1-4008-5697-8.OCLC1170509102.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^abcd"Chile".International Religious Freedom Report. United States Department of State. 19 September 2008.Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved22 May 2019.
^Bill Kte'pi, "Chile", in Robert E. Emery,Cultural Sociology of Divorce: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1 (London: Sage, 2013), 266–68. books.google.com/books?id=wzJdSIfeeTQC&pg=PA266ISBN9781412999588
^"Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank".Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels.Archived from the original on 25 February 2022. Retrieved13 December 2024.
^"Chile".UNESCO International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training. TVET Country Profiles.Archived from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved29 April 2014.
^Sarah Kerr (18 December 2008)."The Triumph of Roberto Bolaño".The New York Review of Books.Archived from the original on 4 March 2010. Retrieved20 February 2010.
^Wood, James (15 April 2007)."The Visceral Realist".The New York Times.Archived from the original on 11 April 2009. Retrieved1 April 2010.
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