Chemical waste is any excess, unused, or unwantedchemical.[1] Chemical waste may be classified ashazardous waste,[2] non-hazardous waste,universal waste, orhousehold hazardous waste, each of which is regulated separately by national governments and theUnited Nations.[3]Hazardous waste is material that displays one or more of the following four characteristics:ignitability,corrosivity,reactivity, andtoxicity. This information, along with chemical disposal requirements, is typically available on a chemical'sSafety Data Sheet (SDS).Radioactive andbiohazardous wastes require additional or different methods of handling and disposal, and are often regulated differently than standard hazardous wastes.
TheU.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) prohibits disposing of certain materials down drains.[4] Therefore, when hazardous chemical waste is generated in a laboratory setting, it is usually stored on-site in appropriate waste containers, such as triple-rinsed chemical storage containers[5] orcarboys, where it is later collected and disposed of in order to meet safety, health, and legislative requirements. Many universities'Environment, Health, and Safety (EHS) divisions/departments serve this collection and oversight role.[6][7][8][9]
During packaging, chemical liquid waste containers are filled to no greater than 75% capacity to allow forvapor expansion and to reduce potential spills that can occur from transporting or moving overfilled containers. Containers for chemical liquid waste are typically constructed from materials compatible with the hazardous waste being stored, such as inert materials like polypropylene (PP) orpolytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). These containers are also constructed of mechanically robust materials in order to minimize leakage during storage or transit.
In addition to the general packaging requirements mentioned above, precipitates, solids, and other non-fluid wastes are typically stored separately from liquid waste. Chemically contaminatedglassware is disposed of separately from other chemical waste in containers that cannot be punctured by broken glass.[15][16]
Containers may be labelled with the group name from a list of chemical waste categories, along with an itemized list of the contents. All chemicals or materials contaminated by chemicals pose a significant hazard, and as such regulations require that the identity of the chemicals in a waste container is obvious.[17]
Chemical waste containers are kept closed to prevent spillage, except when waste is being added. Suitable containers are labeled in order to inform disposal specialists of the contents as well as to prevent the addition of incompatible chemicals.[15] Liquid waste is stored in containers with secure screw-top or similar lids that cannot be easily dislodged in transit. Solid waste is stored in various sturdy, chemically inert containers, such as large, sealed buckets or thick plastic bags. Secondary containment, such as trays or safety cabinets, are used to capture spills and leaks from the primary container and to segregate incompatible hazardous wastes, such asacids andbases.
Oxidizers are separated from acids, organic materials, metals,reducing agents, andammonia, as when oxidizers combine with these types of compounds,flammable and sometimestoxic compounds can be created. Oxidizers also increase the likelihood that any flammable material present will ignite, seen most readily in research laboratories with improper storage of organic solvents.[20]
Pharmaceuticals comprise one of the few groups of chemicals that are specifically designed to act on living cells. They present a special risk when they persist in the environment.
With the exception of watercourses downstream ofsewage treatment plants, the concentration of pharmaceuticals in surface and ground water is generally low. Concentrations insewage sludge and in landfillleachate may be substantially higher[21] and provide alternative routes for EPPPs to enter the human and animal food-chain.
However, even at very low environmental concentrations (often ug/L or ng/L), the chronic exposure to environmental pharmaceuticals chemicals can add to the effects of other chemicals in the cocktail is still not studied. The different chemicals might be potentiating synergistic effects (higher thanadditive effects). An extremely sensitive group in this respect are foetuses.
EPPPs are already found in water all over the world. The diffuse exposure might contribute to
extinction of species and imbalance of sensibleecosystems, as many EPPPs affect the reproductive systems of for example frogs, mussels, and fish;[22]
genetic, developmental, immune and hormonal health effects to humans and other species, in the same way as e.g. oestrogen-like chemicals;[medical citation needed]
development of microbes resistant to antibiotics, as is found in India.[23]
The use of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is on the rise with an estimated increase from 2 billion to 3.9 billion annual prescriptions between 1999 and 2009 in the United States alone.[24] PPCPs enter into the environment through individual human activity and as residues from manufacturing, agribusiness,veterinary use, andhospital and community use. In Europe, the input of pharmaceutical residues via domestic waste water is estimated to be around 80% whereas 20% is coming from hospitals.[25] Individuals may add PPCPs to the environment through waste excretion and bathing as well as by directly disposing of unused medications toseptic tanks,sewers, or trash. Because PPCPs tend to dissolve relatively easily and do not evaporate at normal temperatures, they often end up in soil and water bodies.
Some PPCPs are broken down or processed easily by a human or animal body and/or degrade quickly in the environment. However, others do not break down or degrade easily. The likelihood or ease with which an individual substance will break down depends on its chemical makeup and the metabolic pathway of the compound.[26]
In 2022, the most comprehensive study of pharmaceutical pollutionof the world's rivers finds thatit threatens "environmental and/or human health in more than a quarter of the studied locations". It investigated 1,052 sampling sites along 258 rivers in 104 countries, representing the river pollution of 470 million people. It found that "the most contaminated sites were in low- to middle-income countries and were associated with areas with poor wastewater and waste management infrastructure andpharmaceutical manufacturing" and lists the most frequently detected and concentrated pharmaceuticals.[27][28]
Pharmaceutical pollution of the world's rivers by chemical and region
Indigo color water pollution in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 2005[better source needed]
Thetextile industry is one of the largest polluters in theglobalized world of mostly free market dominated socioeconomic systems.[29] Chemically polluted textile wastewater degrades the quality of thesoil andwater.[30] The pollution comes from the type of conduct of chemical treatments used e.g.,in pretreatment, dyeing, printing, and finishing operations[31] that many or most market-driven companies use despite "eco-friendly alternatives". Textile industry wastewater is considered to be one the largest polluters of water and soilecosystems, causing "carcinogenic, mutagenic, genotoxic, cytotoxic and allergenic threats to living organisms".[32][33] The textile industry uses over 8000 chemicals in its supply chain,[34] also polluting the environment with large amounts ofmicroplastics[35] and has been identified in one review as the industry sector producing the largest amount of pollution.[36]
A campaign of big clothing brands like Nike, Adidas and Puma to voluntarily reformtheir manufacturingsupply chains to commit to achieving zero discharges of hazardous chemicals by 2020 (global goal)[37][38] appears to have failed.
The textile industry also creates a lot of pollution that leads toexternalities which can cause large economic problems. The problem usually occurs when there is no division of ownership rights. This means that the problem of pollution is largely caused because of incomplete information about which company pollutes and at what scale the damage was caused by the pollution.
A study by"Scienmag" defines a 'planetary boundary' for novel entities such asplastic and chemical pollution. The study reported that the boundary has been crossed.[39][40][41][42]
Chemical waste in oceans is becoming a major issue for marine life. There have been many studies conducted to try and prove the effects of chemicals in oceans.[44] In Canada, many of the studies concentrated on the Atlantic provinces, where fishing and aquaculture are an important part of the economy. In New Brunswick, a study was done onsea urchins in an attempt to identify the effects of toxic and chemical waste on life beneath the ocean, specifically the waste from salmon farms. Sea urchins were used to check the levels of metals in the environment.Green sea urchins have been used as they are widely distributed, abundant in many locations, and easily accessible. By investigating the concentrations of metals in the green sea urchins, the impacts of chemicals fromsalmon aquaculture activity could be assessed and detected. Samples were taken at 25-meter intervals along a transect in the direction of the main tidal flow. The study found that there were impacts to at least 75 meters based on the intestine metal concentrations.
^Akhtar, Muhammad Furqan; Ashraf, Muhammad; Javeed, Aqeel; Anjum, Aftab Ahmad; Sharif, Ali; Saleem, Mohammad; Mustafa, Ghulam; Ashraf, Moneeb; Saleem, Ammara; Akhtar, Bushra (28 February 2018). "Association of textile industry effluent with mutagenicity and its toxic health implications upon acute and sub-chronic exposure".Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.190 (3): 179.Bibcode:2018EMnAs.190..179A.doi:10.1007/s10661-018-6569-7.ISSN1573-2959.PMID29492685.S2CID3710964.
^Behera, Meerambika; Nayak, Jayato; Banerjee, Shirsendu; Chakrabortty, Sankha; Tripathy, Suraj K. (1 August 2021). "A review on the treatment of textile industry waste effluents towards the development of efficient mitigation strategy: An integrated system design approach".Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering.9 (4) 105277.doi:10.1016/j.jece.2021.105277.ISSN2213-3437.S2CID233901225.
