Chancellor (Latin:cancellarius) is a title of various official positions in the governments of many countries. The original chancellors were thecancellarii of Roman courts of justice—ushers, who sat at thecancelli (lattice work screens) of abasilica (court hall), which separated the judge and counsel from the audience. A chancellor's office is called achancellery orchancery. The word is now used in the titles of many various officers in various settings (government, education,religion). Nowadays, the term is most often used to describe:
The head of the government
A person in charge of foreign affairs
A person with duties related to justice
A person in charge of financial and economic issues
TheChancellor of Germany (Bundeskanzler) is thehead of government in Germany. InGerman politics, theBundeskanzler is equivalent to aprime minister and is elected by theBundestag ("FederalDiet", the directly elected federal parliament) every four years on the beginning of the electoral period after general elections. Between general elections, the Chancellor (together with the whole cabinet) can only be removed from office by akonstruktives Misstrauensvotum (constructive vote of no confidence), which consists of theBundestag electing a successor.[2]
The formerGerman Empire, theWeimar Republic andNazi Germany had the equivalent position ofReichskanzler as the head of the executive. Between 1871 and 1918, the Chancellor was appointed by theGerman Emperor. During theWeimar Republic (1919-1933), the Chancellor was chosen by thePresident and stood under his authority. This continued (formally) during the first year of the Nazi regime until the death of President Paul von Hindenburg in 1934. Between 1934 and 1945,Adolf Hitler combined the roles of head of state, head of government and leader of the ruling party, being officially titled "Führer und Reichskanzler" (literally "Leader and Imperial Chancellor").
InSwitzerland, theChancellor (German:Bundeskanzler, French:Chancelier fédéral, Italian:Cancelliere della Confederazione) is not the political head of government, but rather its chief administrator as the Chief of Staff of the Swiss Federal Government. He is elected by the SwissFederal Assembly (German:Bundesversammlung, French:Assemblée fédérale, Italian:Assemblea federale) to head the Federal Chancellery (German:Bundeskanzlei) — the general staff of the seven-member executiveFederal Council, the Swiss federal government. The Chancellor participates in the meetings of the seven Federal Councilors with a consultative vote and prepares the reports on policy and activities of the council to parliament (assembly). The chancellery is responsible for the publication of all federal laws.
In most Swiss cantons there is a State Chancellor who heads the central administrative unit of the cantonal government.[3] In theCanton of Geneva, the first documents attesting to the existence of a Chancellor go back to the 12th century. In the 16th century the Chancery is officially described as the permanent secretariat of the executive and legislature. The first of these functions still constitutes an important part of its activities in Geneva and other cantons.[4] In thecanton of Bern, the Chancellor is elected by the Grand Council (i.e. Parliament) and has the task of supporting the Grand Council and the Executive Council in carrying out their tasks. The Chancellor directs the staff of the Executive Council, supports the President of the Government and the Executive Council in the performance of their duties, and usually participates as an advisor to the President of the Grand Council in Grand Council sessions.[5]
In most countries ofLatin America, the equivalents to "chancellor" (Canciller inSpanish andChanceler inPortuguese) are commonly used to refer to the post offoreign minister. It is often used as a synonym to the full titles of theministers of foreign affairs. Likewise, the ministry of foreign affairs in Spanish-speaking countries in the Americas is referred to as theCancillería or in Portuguese-speaking Brazil asChancelaria. However, in Spain the termcanciller refers to acivil servant in the Spanishdiplomatic service responsible for technical issues relating to foreign affairs. As to the German foreign service, the termKanzler (chancellor) refers to the administrative head of a diplomatic mission.
In Finland theChancellor of Justice (Oikeuskansleri,Justitiekanslern) supervises the legality of actions taken by thegovernment and monitors the implementation of basic civil liberties. In this special function the chancellor also sits in the FinnishCabinet, theFinnish Council of State.
In the legal system of the United Kingdom, the term can refer to these officials:
Chancellor of the Exchequer, thefinance minister. As one of theGreat Officers of State, the Chancellor is generally seen as second only to thePrime Minister in political potency. The title dates back to theKingdom of England. When the termchancellor is used in British politics, it almost always refers to the Chancellor of the Exchequer. AsSecond Lord of the Treasury, the Chancellor has an official residence at 11Downing Street, next door to theFirst Lord of the Treasury, thePrime Minister, at 10 Downing Street, in London.
TheLord Chancellor (Lord High Chancellor,King's Chancellor) is one of the oldest offices of state, dating back to theKingdom of England, and older thanParliament itself. Theoretically, the Lord Chancellor is theChancellor of Great Britain. A former office of "Chancellor of Ireland" was abolished in 1922, when all butNorthern Ireland left the United Kingdom. The Lord Chancellor is the ceremonially second-highest-ranking non-royal subject inprecedence (after theArchbishop of Canterbury). In addition to the now primarily ceremonial duties as Chancellor, the office is now invariably held by theSecretary of State for Justice, who is the political head of theMinistry of Justice. Previously, the Chancellor also held the roles of:
Head of the English, but not Scottish, judiciary. In previous centuries, the Lord Chancellor was the sole judge in theCourt of Chancery; when, in 1873, that court was combined with others to form theHigh Court, the Lord Chancellor became the nominal head of the Chancery Division. The Lord Chancellor was permitted to participate in judicial sittings of the House of Lords; he also chose the committees that heard appeals in the Lords. Thede facto head of the Chancery Division was the Vice-Chancellor, and the role of choosing appellate committees was in practice fulfilled by theSenior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary.
Speaker of theHouse of Lords. These duties are now undertaken by theLord Speaker.Jack Straw was the first Lord Chancellor to be a member of the House of Commons, rather than the House of Lords or its predecessor, the Curia Regis, sinceSir Christopher Hatton in 1578.[6][7]
TheChancellor of the High Court is the head of theChancery Division of the High Court of Justice. Before 2005, the judge occupying this position was known as the Vice-Chancellor, the Lord Chancellor being the nominal head of the Division.
In acounty palatine orliberty, where a local lord exercised personal jurisdiction that elsewhere was reserved tothe Crown, the head of the lord's administration was often titled "chancellor".Where the lord was a bishop (as with theBishop of Ely inIsle of Ely or theArchbishop of York inHexhamshire) then this officer was called thetemporal chancellor to distinguish him from the bishop'secclesiastical chancellor. While palatine and liberty jurisdictions are practically obsolete, the ceremonial title chancellor remains in use:
In Denmark, the office of chancellor (or royal chancellor) seems to have appeared in the 12th century, and until 1660 it was the title of the leader of the state administration (a kind of a "Home Office" but often with foreign political duties). Often he appeared to be the real leader of the government. From 1660 until 1848, the title continued as "Grand Chancellor" or "President of the Danish Chancellery", and was replaced in 1730 by the title "Minister of Domestic Affairs".[8][better source needed]
In Estonia, a Chancellor (Kantsler) directs the work of aministry and coordinates institutions subject to the ministry, comparably to aPermanent Secretary in Great Britain. A ministry can also have one or several Vice-Chancellors (Asekantsler), who fulfill the duties of the Chancellor, when they are absent.[9] TheChancellor of Justice (Õiguskantsler, currentlyÜlle Madise) supervises the legality of actions taken by thegovernment and monitors the implementation of basic civil liberties.[10]
In the United States, the only "chancellor" established by the federal government is the Chancellor of theSmithsonian Institution, a largely ceremonial office held by theChief Justice of the United States. As the Smithsonian is a research and museum system, its use of the title is perhaps best thought of as akin to auniversity's chancellor.
The chancellor is the principal record-keeper of adiocese oreparchy, or their equivalent. The chancellor is a notary, so that he may certify official documents, and often has other duties at the discretion of the bishop of the diocese: he may be in charge of some aspect of finances or of managing the personnel connected with diocesan offices, although his delegated authority cannot extend to vicars of the diocesan bishop, such asvicars general, episcopal vicars or judicial vicars. His office is within the "chancery". Vice-chancellors may be appointed to assist the chancellor in busy chanceries. Normally, the chancellor is a priest or deacon, although in some circumstances a layperson may be appointed to the post.[11] In the eparchial curia a chancellor is to be appointed who is to be a presbyter (priest) or deacon and whose principal obligation, unless otherwise established by the particular law, is to see that the acts of the curia are gathered and arranged as well as preserved in the archives of the eparchial curia.[12]
In theUnited Methodist Church, eachAnnual Conference has a Conference Chancellor, who is the Annual Conference's legal adviser and representative. While the Annual Conference usually hires outside professional counsel in matters that require legal representation, that hiring and representation is done under the supervision, and with the consent, of the Conference Chancellor.[13]
In a few instances, the term chancellor applies to a student or faculty member in a high school or an institution of higher learning who is either appointed or elected as chancellor to preside on the highest rankingjudicial board ortribunal. They handle non-academic matters such as violations of behavior.
In Germany many heads of university administration carry the titleKanzler (Chancellor) while the academical heads carry the titleRektor (Rector). In order to avoid any misunderstanding, the head of the German Federal Government is therefore usually called by the official titleBundeskanzler (Federal Chancellor).
There are two ancient Egyptian titles sometimes translated as chancellor.
The "royal sealer" (xtmtj-bity or xtmw-bity), a title which conveyed a certain rank at the royal court, attested since the First Dynasty (about 3000 BC).[15] People holding the post includeImhotep andHemaka.[16]
The "Keeper of the Royal Seal" (oroverseer of the seal ortreasurer—imy-r xtmt[17][18]) was responsible for the state's income. This position appears around 2000 BC. Officials holding the post includeBay orIrsu, Khety[19]Meketre,[20] and Nakhti.[21]
InNorway theChancellor of Norway (modern Norwegian:Norges rikes kansler, "Chancellor of Norway's Realm") was the most important aide of theKing of Norway during theMiddle Ages. He issued laws and regulations, and was responsible for day-to-day administration of the kingdom. From 1270, the Chancellor resided inBergen.Haakon V of Norway moved the Chancellor's residence toOslo; on 31 August 1314 theprovost ofSt Mary's Church became Chancellor on a permanent basis. He was given theGreat Seal of the Realm "for eternity." The Chancellors were originally chosen from theclergy. The position lost its importance afterJens Bjelke's tenure, and was abolished in 1679.[22]
§2. If it seems necessary the chancellor can be given an assistant whose title is vice-chancellor.
§3. The chancellor as well as the vice-chancellor are by the law itself notaries of the eparchial curia.
In the1983 Code of Canon Law for theLatin Church of the Catholic Church, the chancellor may be a layperson, and not necessarily a presbyter or deacon. The office of the Chancellor is mandatory in all diocesan (eparchial) curia. The primary function of the Chancellor is to keep the curial records properly. Beal,New Commentary on the Code of Canon Law, Paulist Press, Mahwah, New Jersey, 2000,p. 635.
^As an example, see the Texas Annual Conference of the United Methodist Church (www.txcumc.org).
^Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary, Kenkyusha Limited,ISBN4-7674-2015-6
^Toby A. H. Wilkinson,Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge 1999, p. 131
^Michael Rice,Who's Who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge 2001, p. 63
^pBerlin 10035 in U. Luft,Urkunden zur Chronologie der späten 12. Dynastie, Briefe aus Illahun, Wien 2006, 69 ff.
^pLouvre 3230 B in E. Wente,Letters from Ancient Egypt, Atlanta, 1990, 92
