It is the historic native language of theChamorro people, who areindigenous to theMariana Islands, although it is less commonly spoken today than in the past. Chamorro has three distinctdialects: Guamanian, Rotanese, and that in the other Northern Mariana Islands (NMI).
At the time the Spanish rule over Guam ended, it was thought that Chamorro was a semi-creole language, with a substantial amount of the vocabulary of Spanish origin and beginning to have a high level ofmutual intelligibility with Spanish. It is reported that even in the early 1920s, Spanish was reported to be a living language in Guam for commercial transactions, but the use of Spanish and Chamorro was rapidly declining as a result of English pressure.
Spanish influences in Chamorro exist due to three centuries of Spanish colonial rule. Many words in the Chamorro lexicon are ofLatin etymological origin via Spanish, but the pronunciation of theseloanwords has beennativized to thephonology of Chamorro, and their use conforms to indigenous grammatical structures. Some authors consider Chamorro amixed language[7] under a historical point of view, even though it remains independent and unique. In hisChamorro Reference Grammar, Donald M. Topping states:[8]
The most notable influence on Chamorro language and culture came from the Spanish.... There was wholesale borrowing of Spanish words and phrases into Chamorro, and there was even some borrowing from the Spanish sound system. But this borrowing was linguistically superficial. The bones of the Chamorro language remained intact.... In virtually all cases of borrowing, Spanish words were forced to conform to the Chamorro sound system.... While Spanish may have left a lasting mark on Chamorro vocabulary, as it did on many Philippine and South American languages, it had virtually no effect on Chamorro grammar.... The Japanese influence on Chamorro was much greater than that of German but much less than Spanish. Once again, the linguistic influence was restricted exclusively to vocabulary items, many of which refer to manufactured objects....
In contrast, in the essays found inDel español al chamorro. Lenguas en contacto en el Pacífico (2009),Rafael Rodríguez-Ponga refers to modern Chamorro as a "mixed language" of "Hispanic-Austronesian" origins and estimates that approximately 50% of the Chamorro lexicon comes from Spanish, whose contribution goes far beyond loanwords.
Rodríguez-Ponga (1995) considers Chamorro to be either Spanish-Austronesian or a Spanish-Austronesian mixed language, or at least a language that has emerged from a process of contact andcreolization on the island of Guam since modern Chamorro is influenced in vocabulary and has in its grammar many elements of Spanish origin:verbs, articles,prepositions,numerals,conjunctions, etc.[9]
The process, which began in the 17th century and ended in the early 20th century, meant a profound change from the old Chamorro (paleo-Chamorro) to modern Chamorro (neo-Chamorro) in itsgrammar,phonology, andvocabulary.[10]
The common greeting "Hafa Adai" atAntonio B. Won Pat International Airport on Guam. "Hafa" here is not written as "Håfa" as in the newer, standardised orthography.
The Chamorro language is threatened, with a precipitous drop in language fluency over the past century. It is estimated that 75% of the population of Guam was literate in the Chamorro language around the time the United States captured the island during theSpanish–American War[11] (there are no similar language fluency estimates for other areas of theMariana Islands during this time). A century later, the 2000 U.S. Census showed that fewer than 20% of Chamorros living in Guam speak their heritage language fluently, and the vast majority of those were over the age of 55.
A number of forces have contributed to the steep, post-World War II decline of Chamorro language fluency. There is a long history of colonization of the Marianas, beginning with the Spanish colonization in 1668 and, eventually, the American acquisition of Guam in 1898 (whose hegemony continues to this day). This imposed power structures privileging the language of the region's colonizers. According to estimates, a large majority, as stated above (75%), maintained active knowledge of the Chamorro language even during the Spanish colonial era, but this was all to change with the advent ofAmerican imperialism and enforcement of the English language.
In Guam, the language suffered additional suppression when the U.S. government banned the Chamorro language in schools and workplaces in 1922, destroying all Chamorro dictionaries.[12] Similar policies were undertaken by the Japanese government when they controlled the region during World War II. After the war, when Guam was recaptured by the United States, American administrators of the island continued to impose "no Chamorro" restrictions in local schools, teaching only English anddisciplining students for speaking their indigenous tongue.[13]
While these oppressive language policies were progressively lifted, Chamorro usage had substantially decreased. Subsequent generations were often raised in households where only the oldest family members were fluent. Lack of exposure made it increasingly difficult to pick up Chamorro as a second language. Within a few generations, English replaced Chamorro as the language of daily life.[citation needed]
There is a difference in the rate of Chamorro language fluency between Guam and the rest of the Marianas. On Guam the number of native Chamorro speakers has dwindled since the mid-1990s. In the Northern Mariana Islands (NMI), younger Chamorros speak the language fluently but prefer English when speaking to their children. Chamorro is common in Chamorro households in the Northern Marianas, but fluency has greatly decreased among Guamanian Chamorros during the years of American rule in favor of theAmerican English commonplace throughout the Marianas.
Today, NMI Chamorros and Guamanian Chamorros disagree strongly on each other's linguistic fluency. An NMI Chamorro would say Guamanian Chamorros speak "broken" Chamorro (i.e., incorrect), whereas a Guamanian Chamorro might consider the form used by NMI Chamorros to be archaic.[citation needed]
Representatives from Guam have unsuccessfully lobbied the United States to take action to promote and protect the language.[citation needed]
In 2013, "Guam will be institutingPublic Law 31–45, which increases the teaching of the Chamorro language and culture in Guam schools", extending instruction to include grades 7–10.[14]
Other efforts have been made in recent times, most notably Chamorroimmersion schools. One example is Huråo Guåhan Academy at Chamorro Village in downtownHagåtña. This program is led by Ann Marie Arceo and her husband, Ray. According to the academy's officialYouTube page, "Huråo Academy is one if not the first Chamoru Immersion Schools that focus on the teaching of Chamoru language and Self-identity on Guam. Huråo was founded as a non-profit in June 2005."[15] The academy has been praised by many for the continuity of the Chamoru language.
Other creative ways to incorporate and promote the Chamorro language have been found in the use of applications for smartphones, internet videos and television. From Chamorro dictionaries,[16] to the most recent "Speak Chamorro" app,[17] efforts are growing and expanding in ways to preserve and protect the Chamorro language and identity.
On YouTube, a popular Chamorrosoap operaSiha[18] has received mostly positive feedback from native Chamorro speakers on its ability to weave dramatics, the Chamorro language, and island culture into an entertaining program. On TV,Nihi! Kids is a first-of-its-kind show, because it is targeted "for Guam's nenis that aims to perpetuate Chamoru language and culture while encouraging environmental stewardship, healthy choices and character development."[19]
Words containing*-VC_CV- inProto-Malayo-Polynesian were often syncopated to*-VCCV-. This is most regular for words containing middle*ə (schwa), e.g.*qaləjaw →atdaw "sun", but sometimes also with other vowels, e.g.*qanitu →anti "soul, spirit, ghost". Then after this syncope, older*ə merged withu. Later,*i and*u were lowered toe ando in closed syllables (*demdem →homhom "dark"), or finally but preceded by a closed syllable (*peResi →fokse "squeeze out", butafok "lime" →afuki "put lime on"). The phonemic split between/ɑ/ and/æ/ is still unexplained. Diphthongs*ay and*aw are still retained in Chamorro, while*uy has becomei.[22]
If a word started with a vowel or*h (but not*q), thenprothesis withgw org (beforeo oru) occurred:*aku →gwahu "I (emphatic)",*enem →gunum "six". Additionally,*-iaC,*-ua(C), and*-auC have become-iyaC,-ugwa(C), and-agoC respectively.[24]
Chamorro is a VSO orverb–subject–object language. However, the word order can be very flexible and change to SVO (subject-verb-object), like English, if necessary to convey different types of relative clauses depending on context and to stress parts of what someone is trying to say or convey. Again, that is subject to debate as those on Guam believe the Chamorro word order is flexible, but those in the NMI do not.
Chamorro is also anagglutinative language, whose grammar allowsroot words to be modified by a number ofaffixes. For example,masanganenñaihon 'talked a while (with/to)', passive marking prefixma-, root verbsangan, referential suffixi 'to' (forcedmorphophonemically to change toe) withexcrescent consonantn, and suffixñaihon 'a short amount of time'. ThusMasanganenñaihon guiʼ 'He/she was told (something) for a while'.
Chamorro has many Spanishloanwords and other words have Spanish etymological roots (such astenda 'shop/store' from Spanishtienda), which may lead some to mistakenly conclude that the language is aSpanish creole, but Chamorro very much uses its loanwords in an Austronesian way (bumobola 'playingball' frombola 'ball, play ball' with verbalizinginfix-um- andreduplication of the first syllable of root).
Chamorro is apredicate-initialhead-marking language. It has a rich agreement system in the nominal and in the verbal domains.
Chamorro is also known for itswh-agreement in the verb. The agreement morphemes agree with features (roughly thegrammatical case feature) of the question phrase and replace the regular subject–verb agreement in transitive realis clauses:[25]
The following set of pronouns is found in Chamorro:[26]
Free
Absolutive
Agentive
Irrealis nominative
Possessive
1st person singular
guåhu
yuʼ
hu
(bai) hu
-hu/-ku*
2nd person singular
hågu
hao
un
un
-mu
3rd person singular
guiya
guiʼ
ha
u
-ña
1st person plural inclusive
hita
hit
ta
(u) ta
-ta
1st person plural exclusive
hami
ham
in
(bai) in
-mami
2nd person plural
hamyu
hamyu
en
en
-miyu
3rd person plural
siha
siha
ma
uha/u/uma
-ñiha
* For 1st person singular possessives, the NMI orthography also lists-su and-tu as allomorphs of-hu following words ending in-s and-t, respectively.[27]
The letters⟨c⟩,⟨j⟩,⟨q⟩,⟨v⟩,⟨w⟩,⟨x⟩,⟨z⟩,⟨ll⟩, and⟨rr⟩ are only used in proper names.[28]
In loanwords, some letter combinations in Chamorro sometimes represent single phonemes. For instance, "ci+[vowel]" and "ti+[vowel]" are both pronounced[ʃ], as inhustisia ('justice') and the surnameConcepcion (Spanish influence).
The letter⟨y⟩ is usually (though not always) pronounced more like[dz] (cf.zheísmo inRioplatense Spanish); it is also sometimes used to represent the same sound as the letter⟨i⟩ by Guamanian speakers. The phonemes represented by⟨n⟩ and⟨ñ⟩ as well as⟨a⟩ and⟨å⟩ are not always distinguished in print. Thus the Guamanian place name spelled⟨Yona⟩ is pronounced⟨Dzonia⟩[dzoɲa], not*[jona] as might be expected.⟨Ch⟩ is usually pronounced like[ts] rather than like Englishch. Chamorro⟨r⟩ is usually a tap/ɾ/, but is rolled/r/ between vowels, and it is a retroflex approximant/ɻ/, like Englishr, at the beginning of words. Words that begin withr in the Chamorro lexicon are exclusively loanwords.[citation needed]
Chamorro hasgeminate consonants which are written double⟨gg⟩,⟨dd⟩,⟨kk⟩,⟨mm⟩,⟨ngng⟩,⟨pp⟩,⟨ss⟩, and⟨tt⟩. Its nativediphthongs are⟨ai⟩ and⟨ao⟩, and⟨oi⟩,⟨oe⟩,⟨ia⟩,⟨iu⟩, and⟨ie⟩ occur in loanwords. When⟨i⟩ and another vowel are inhiatus, (i.e.,/i.e/,/i.o/,/i.a/, and/i.u/), they are spelled⟨ihe⟩,⟨iho⟩,⟨iha⟩, and⟨ihu⟩.[28]
The default stress in Chamorropenultimate stress, except where marked otherwise. If marked at all in writing, it is usually with anacute accent, as inasút 'blue' ordángkulu (NMI) /dǻngkolo (Guam) 'big'. Unstressed vowels are limited to/əiu/, though they are often spelled⟨a e o⟩. Syllables may end in at most one consonant, as inche’lu 'sibling',diskåtga 'unload',mamåhlåo 'shy',oppop 'lie face down',gåtus (Old Chamorro word for 100), orHagåtña (capital of Guam).
Chamorro language orthography differs between NMI Chamorros and Guamanian Chamorros (example: NMIChamorro vs. GuamanianCHamoru). In 2021, Guam'sKumisión I Fino' CHamoru (CHamoru Language Commission) released theUtgrafihan CHamoru as thelatest spelling standard for the local dialect and place names.[28][29] The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands revised their official Chamorro orthography in 2010,[30] which included a version translated into English.[31]
Current common Chamorro uses only the number words of Spanish origin:uno,dos,tres, etc. Old Chamorro used different numberclassifiers based on categories: basic numbers (for date, time, etc.), living things, inanimate things, and long objects.
English
Spanish
Modern Chamorro
Old Chamorro
Basic Numbers
Living Things
Inanimate Things
Long Objects
one
uno
unu/una (time)
håcha
maisa
hachiyai
takhachun
two
dos
dos
hugua
hugua
hugiyai
takhuguan
three
tres
tres
tulu
tatu
toʼgiyai
taktulun
four
cuatro
kuåttru
fatfat
fatfat
fatfatai
takfatun
five
cinco
singku
lima
lalima
limiyai
takliman
six
seis
sais
gunum
guagunum
gonmiyai
taʼgunum
seven
siete
sietti
fiti
fafiti
fitgiyai
takfitun
eight
ocho
ocho
guåluʼ
guagualu
guatgiyai
taʼgualun
nine
nueve
nuebi
sigua
sasigua
sigiyai
taksiguan
ten
diez
dies
månot
maonot
manutai
takmaonton
hundred
ciento
siento
gåtus
gåtus
gåtus
gåtus/manapo
The number 10 and its multiples up to 90 aredies (10),benti (20),trenta (30),kuårenta (40),sinkuenta (50),sisenta (60),sitenta (70),ochenta (80),nubenta (90). These are similar to the corresponding Spanish termsdiez (10),veinte (20),treinta (30),cuarenta (40),cincuenta (50),sesenta (60),setenta (70),ochenta (80),noventa (90).
Current common Chamorro uses only the days of the week which are Spanish in origin but are spelled and pronounced differently. There is currently an effort by Chamorro language advocates to introduce or re-introduce native terms for the Chamorro days of the week.However, both major dialects differ in the terminology used. Guamanian advocates support a number-based system derived from Old Chamorro numerals, whereas the NMI advocates support a more unique system.
Before the Spanish-based 12-month calendar became predominant, the Chamoru 13-month lunar calendar was commonly used. The first month in the left column below corresponds with January.
Researchers in several countries are studying aspects of Chamorro. In 2009, the Chamorro Linguistics International Network (CHIN) was established inBremen, Germany. CHiN was founded on the occasion of Chamorro Day (27 September 2009) which was part of the programme of the Festival of Languages. The foundation ceremony was attended by people from Germany, Guam, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States of America.[34]
^Rodriguez-Ponga, Rafael (2009).Del español al Chamorro: Lenguas en contacto en el Pacífico [From Spanish to Chamorro: Languages in Contact in the Pacific] (in Spanish). Madrid: Ediciones Gondo.
^NIHI!,archived from the original on 16 October 2019, retrieved16 October 2019NIHI!,archived from the original on 16 October 2019, retrieved16 October 2019
^abcdeKumisión i Fino’ CHamoru yan i Fina’nå’guen i Historia yan i Lina’la’ i Taotao Tåno’ (September 2020).Utugrafihan CHamoru, Guåhan(PDF) (Report). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 22 October 2023. Retrieved14 May 2021.
^Kumisión i Fino’ CHamoru (2024).Utugrafihan CHamoru Guåhan [The Guam CHamoru Orthography](PDF) (in Chamorro and English). Kumision I Fino' CHamoru Yan I Fina'nå'guen I Historia Yan I Lina'la' I Taotao Tåno'.ISBN979-8-9860913-2-7.
^The Maga’låhi (president) is Dr. Rafael Rodríguez-Ponga Salamanca (Madrid, Spain); Maga’låhi ni onrao (honorary president): Dr. Robert A. Underwood (president, University of Guam); Teniente maga’låhi (vice-president): Prof. Dr. Thomas Stolz (Universität Bremen).
Blust, Robert (2000). "Chamorro Historical Phonology".Oceanic Linguistics.39 (1). University of Hawaii Press:83–122.doi:10.1353/ol.2000.0002.JSTOR3623218.
Topping, Donald M.; Ogo, Pedro M.; Dungca, Bernadita C. (1975).Chamorro-English dictionary. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.ISBN978-0-8248-0353-7.
Topping, Donald M. (1980).Spoken Chamorro: with grammatical notes and glossary (2nd ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.ISBN978-0-8248-0417-6.
