Chalukya dynasty | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 543–753 | |||||||||||
![Greatest extent of the Chalukya Empire[1]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aChalukyas_at_their_height.png) Greatest extent of the Chalukya Empire[1] | |||||||||||
| Capital | Badami | ||||||||||
| Common languages | Kannada Sanskrit | ||||||||||
| Religion | Hinduism Buddhism[2] Jainism | ||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||
| Maharaja | |||||||||||
• 543–566 | Pulakeshin I | ||||||||||
• 746–753 | Kirtivarman II | ||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||
• Earliest records | 543 | ||||||||||
• Established | 543 | ||||||||||
• Disestablished | 753 | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| Today part of | India | ||||||||||
TheChalukya dynasty (Kannada:[tʃaːlukjɐ]) was aClassical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts ofsouthern andcentral India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modernBadami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of theKadamba kingdom ofBanavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign ofPulakeshin II. After the death of Pulakeshin II, theEastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the easternDeccan. They ruled fromVengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of theRashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, theWestern Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modernBasavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century.
The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history ofSouth India and agolden age in the history ofKarnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between theKaveri and theNarmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture".Kannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in theJain andBrahminical traditions. The 11th century saw the patronage ofTelugu literature under theEastern Chalukyas.
While opinions vary regarding the early origins of the Chalukyas, the consensus among noted historians such asJohn Keay,D.C. Sircar, Hans Raj, S. Sen,Kamath,K. V. Ramesh and Karmarkar is that the founders of the empire at Badami were native to the modernKarnataka region.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]
A theory that they were descendants of a 2nd-century chieftain called Kandachaliki Remmanaka, a feudatory of theAndhra Ikshvaku (from an Ikshvaku inscription of the 2nd century) was put forward. This according to Kamath has failed to explain the difference in lineage. The Kandachaliki feudatory call themselvesVashisthiputras of theHiranyakagotra. The Chalukyas, however, address themselves asHarithiputras ofManavyasagotra in their inscriptions, which is the same lineage as their early overlords, theKadambas of Banavasi. This makes them descendants of the Kadambas. The Chalukyas took control of the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas.[14]
A later record of Eastern Chalukyas mentions the northern origin theory and claims one ruler ofAyodhya came south, defeated the Pallavas and married a Pallava princess. She had a child called Vijayaditya who is claimed to be thePulakeshin I's father. However, according to the historians K. V. Ramesh, Chopra and Sastri, there are Badami Chalukya inscriptions that confirmJayasimha was Pulakeshin I's grandfather andRanaraga, his father.[15][16][17][18] Kamath andMoraes claim it was a popular practice in the 11th century to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom. The Badami Chalukya records themselves are silent with regards to the Ayodhya origin.[19][20]
While the northern origin theory has been dismissed by many historians, the epigraphist K. V. Ramesh has suggested that an earlier southern migration is a distinct possibility which needs examination.[21] According to him, the complete absence of any inscriptional reference of their family connections to Ayodhya, and their subsequent Kannadiga identity may have been due to their earlier migration into present day Karnataka region where they achieved success as chieftains and kings. Hence, the place of origin of their ancestors may have been of no significance to the kings of the empire who may have considered themselves natives of the Kannada speaking region.[13] The writing of 12th centuryKashmiri poetBilhana suggests the Chalukya family belonged to theShudra while other sources claim they were born in the arms of Brahma, and hence wereKshatriya caste.[22] According toXuanzang, the Chalukya kingPulakeshin II was war-like and loved "military arts", because he was aKshatriya by birth.[23]
The historians Jan Houben and Kamath, and the epigraphist D.C. Sircar note the Badami Chalukyainscriptions are inKannada andSanskrit.[24][25][26] According to the historian N. L. Rao, their inscriptions call themKarnatas and their names use indigenous Kannada titles such asPriyagallam andNoduttagelvom. The names of some Chalukya princes end with the pure Kannada termarasa (meaning "king" or "chief").[27][28] TheRashtrakuta inscriptions call the Chalukyas of BadamiKarnatakabala ("Power of Karnataka").[29] It has been proposed by the historian S. C. Nandinath that the word "Chalukya" originated fromSalki orChalki which is a Kannada word for an agricultural implement.[30][31][32] According to some historians, the Chalukyas originated from agriculturists.[32][30]
Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada are the main source of information about Badami Chalukya history. Among them, theBadami cave inscriptions ofMangalesha (578),Kappe Arabhatta record of c. 700, Peddavaduguru inscription ofPulakeshin II, theKanchi Kailasanatha Temple inscription andPattadakal Virupaksha Temple inscription ofVikramaditya II (all in Kannada language) provide more evidence of the Chalukya language.[33][34] The Badami cliff inscription of Pulakeshin I (543), theMahakuta Pillar inscription ofMangalesha (595) and theAihole inscription of Pulakeshin II (634) are examples of important Sanskrit inscriptions written in oldKannada script.[35][36][37]The reign of the Chalukyas saw the arrival of Kannada as the predominant language of inscriptions along with Sanskrit, in areas of the Indian peninsula outside what is known asTamilakam (Tamil country).[38] Several coins of the Badami Chalukyas with Kannada legends have been found. All this indicates that Kannada language flourished during this period.[39]
Travelogues of contemporary foreign travellers have provided useful information about the Chalukyan empire. The Chinese travellerXuanzang had visited the court ofPulakeshin II. At the time of this visit, as mentioned in theAihole record, Pulakeshin II had divided his empire into threeMaharashtrakas or great provinces comprising 99,000 villages each. This empire possibly covered present dayKarnataka,Maharashtra andcoastal Konkan.[40][41] Xuanzang, impressed with the governance of the empire observed that the benefits of the king's efficient administration was felt far and wide. Later, Persian emperorKhosrau II exchanged ambassadors with Pulakeshin II.[42][43][44]
Court poets of the Western Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani narrate:
Some scholars connect the Chalukyas with theChaulukyas (Solankis) ofGujarat.[46] According to a myth mentioned in latter manuscripts ofPrithviraj Raso, Chaulukyas were born out of fire-pit (Agnikund) atMount Abu. However it has been reported that the story ofAgnikula is not mentioned at all in the original version of thePrithviraj Raso preserved in the Fort Library atBikaner.[47]
According to the Nilagunda inscription of King Vikramaditya VI (11th century or later), the Chalukyas originally hailed fromAyodhya where fifty-nine kings ruled, and later, sixteen more of this family ruled from South India where they had migrated. This is repeated by his court poet Bilhana, who claims that the first member of the family, "Chalukya", was so named as he was born in the "hollow of the hands" of GodBrahma.[48][49] Some genealogical accounts point to an Ayodhya origin and claim that the Chalukyas belonged to theSolar dynasty.[50][51][52]
According to a theory put forward by Lewis, the Chalukya were descendants of the "Seleukia" tribe ofIraq and that their conflict with thePallava of Kanchi was, but a continuation of the conflict between ancient Seleukia and "Parthians", the proposed ancestors ofPallavas. However, this theory has been rejected by Kamath as it seeks to build lineages based simply on similar-sounding clan names.[53]
The Chalukyas ruled over theDeccan plateau in India for over 600 years. During this period, they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties. These are the "Chalukyas of Badami" (also called "Early Chalukyas"), who ruled between the 6th and the 8th century, and the two sibling dynasties, the "Chalukyas of Kalyani" (also calledWestern Chalukyas or "Later Chalukyas") and the "Chalukyas of Vengi" (also calledEastern Chalukyas).
In the 6th century, with the decline of theGupta dynasty and their immediate successors in northern India, major changes began to happen in the area south of theVindhyas – the Deccan andTamilakam. The age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this region.[54] The Chalukya dynasty was established byPulakeshin I in 543.[55][56][57] Pulakeshin I took Vatapi (modernBadami inBagalkot district,Karnataka) under his control and made it his capital. Pulakeshin I and his descendants are referred to as "Chalukyas of Badami". They ruled over an empire that comprised the entire state ofKarnataka and most ofAndhra Pradesh in the Deccan.
Pulakeshin II, whose pre-coronation name was Ereya,[58] commanded control over the entire Deccan and is perhaps the most well-known emperor of the Badami dynasty.[59][60] He is considered one of the notable kings in Indian history.[61][62][63] His queens were princess from theAlupa Dynasty ofSouth Canara and theWestern Ganga Dynasty ofTalakad, clans with whom the Chalukyas maintained close family and marital relationships.[64][65] Pulakeshin II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of thePallava kingdom and halted the southward march ofHarsha by defeating him on the banks of the riverNarmada. He then defeated theVishnukundins in the south-eastern Deccan.[66][67][68][69] PallavaNarasimhavarman however reversed this victory in 642 by attacking and occupying Badami temporarily. It is presumed Pulakeshin II, "the great hero", died fighting.[43][70]
The Badami Chalukya dynasty went into a brief decline following the death of Pulakeshin II due to internal feuds when Badami was occupied by the Pallavas for a period of thirteen years.[71][72] It recovered during the reign ofVikramaditya I, who succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restoring order to the empire. Vikramaditya I took the title "Rajamalla" (lit "Sovereign of theMallas" or Pallavas).[73] The thirty-seven year rule ofVijayaditya (696–733) was a prosperous one and is known for prolific temple building activity.[74][75]
The empire was its peak again during the rule of the illustriousVikramaditya II (733–744) who is known not only for his repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his subsequent victories over PallavaNandivarman II, but also for his benevolence towards the people and the monuments of Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital.[74][76][77] He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved aKannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple.[76][78][79] During his reign Arab intruders of theCaliphal province of Sind invaded southern Gujarat which was under Chalukya rule, but the Arabs were defeated and driven out byAvanijanashraya Pulakeshin, the governor of theChalukya branch of Navsari.[80] Vikramaditya II later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, thePandyas, theCholas and theCheras in addition to subduing aKalabhra ruler.[81] The last Chalukya king,Kirtivarman II, was overthrown by theRashtrakuta kingDantidurga in 753.[82] At their peak, the Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from theKaveri in the south to theNarmada in the north.
The Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 after over 200 years of dormancy when much of the Deccan was under the rule of the Rashtrakutas. The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated. One theory, based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas, suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious BadamiChalukya dynasty of the 6th century[83][84] while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the Early Chalukyas.[85]
Tailapa II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory ruling from Tardavadi – 1000 (Bijapur district) overthrewKarka II, re-established the Chalukya rule in the western Deccan and recovered most of the Chalukya empire.[86][87] The Western Chalukyas ruled for over 200 years and were in constant conflict with theCholas, and with their cousins, theEastern Chalukyas of Vengi.Vikramaditya VI is widely considered the most notable ruler of the dynasty.[88][89] Starting from the very beginning of his reign, which lasted fifty years, he abolished the originalSaka era and established theVikrama Era. Most subsequent Chalukya inscriptions are dated in this new era.[90][91] Vikramaditya VI was an ambitious and skilled military leader. Under his leadership the Western Chalukyas were able to end the Chola influence over Vengi (coastal Andhra) and become the dominant power in the Deccan.[92][93] The Western Chalukya period was an important age in the development ofKannada literature andSanskrit literature.[94][95] They went into their final dissolution towards the end of the 12th century with the rise of theHoysala Empire, thePandyas, theKakatiya and theSeuna Yadavas of Devagiri.[96]
Pulakeshin II conquered the eastern Deccan, corresponding to the coastal districts of modernAndhra Pradesh in 616, defeating the remnants of theVishnukundina kingdom. He appointed his brotherKubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy in 621.[97][98] Thus the Eastern Chalukyas were originally of Kannada stock.[99] After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an independent kingdom and included the region betweenNellore andVisakhapatnam.[98][100]
After the decline of the Badami Chalukya empire in the mid-8th century, territorial disputes flared up between the Rashtrakutas, the new rulers of the western deccan, and the Eastern Chalukyas. For much of the next two centuries, the Eastern Chalukyas had to accept subordination towards the Rashtrakutas.[101] Apart from a rare military success, such as the one by Vijayaditya II(c.808–847), it was only during the rule of Bhima I (c.892–921) that these Chalukyas were able to celebrate a measure of independence. After the death of Bhima I, the Andhra region once again saw succession disputes and interference in Vengi affairs by the Rashtrakutas.[101]
The fortunes of the Eastern Chalukyas took a turn around 1000. Danarnava, their king, was killed in battle in 973 by the Telugu Choda King Bhima who then imposed his rule over the region for twenty-seven years. During this time, Danarnava's two sons took refuge in theChola kingdom. Choda Bhima's invasion of Tondaimandalam, a Chola territory, and his subsequent death on the battlefield opened up a new era in Chola–Chalukya relations. Saktivarman I, the elder son of Danarnava was crowned as the ruler of Vengi in 1000, though under the control of kingRajaraja Chola I.[102] This new relationship between the Cholas and the coastal Andhra kingdom was unacceptable to the Western Chalukyas, who had by then replaced the Rashtrakutas as the main power in the western Deccan. The Western Chalukyas sought to brook the growing Chola influence in the Vengi region but were unsuccessful.[101][103]
Initially, the Eastern Chalukyas had encouraged Kannada language and literature, though, after a period of time, local factors took over and they gave importance toTelugu language.[104][105] Telugu literature owes its growth to the Eastern Chalukyas.[106]
The Badami Chalukya era was an important period in the development of South Indian architecture. The kings of this dynasty were calledUmapati Varlabdh and built many temples for the Hindu god Shiva.[107] Their style of architecture is called "Chalukyan architecture" or "Karnata Dravida architecture".[108][109] Nearly a hundred monuments built by them, rock cut (cave) and structural, are found in theMalaprabha river basin in modernBagalkot district of northern Karnataka.[110] The building material they used was a reddish-goldenSandstone found locally. These cave temples are basically excavations, cut out of the living rock sites they occupy. They were not built as their structural counterparts were, rather created by a special technique known as "subtraction" and are basically sculptural.[111] Though they ruled a vast empire, the Chalukyan workshops concentrated most of their temple building activity in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland –Aihole,Badami,Pattadakal andMahakuta in modern Karnataka state.[112]
Their temple building activity can be categorised into three phases. The early phase began in the last quarter of the 6th century and resulted in many cave temples, prominent among which are three elementary cave temples at Aihole (oneVedic, one Jain and one Buddhist which is incomplete), followed by four developed cave temples at Badami (of which cave 3, a Vaishnava temple, is dated accurately to 578 CE).[113] These cave temples at Badami are similar, in that, each has a plain exterior but an exceptionally well finished interior consisting of a pillaredverandah, a columned hall (mantapa) and a cella (shrine, cut deep into rock) which contains the deity of worship.[114] In Badami, three caves temples are Vedic and one in Jain. The Vedic temples contain large well sculpted images ofHarihara,Mahishasuramardhini,Varaha,Narasimha, Trivikrama,Vishnu seated onAnantha (the snake) andNataraja (dancingShiva).[115]
The second phase of temple building was at Aihole (where some seventy structures exist and has been called "one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture"[116]) and Badami. Though the exact dating of these temples has been debated, there is consensus that the beginnings of these constructions are from c. 600.[117][118][119] These are theLad Khan Temple (dated by some to c. 450 but more accurately to 620) with its interesting perforated stone windows and sculptures of river goddesses; the Meguti Jain Temple (634) which shows progress in structural design; the Durga Temple with its northern Indian style tower (8th century) and experiments to adapt a BuddhistChaitya design to a brahminical one (its stylistic framework is overall a hybrid of north and south Indian styles.[107]); the Huccimalli Gudi Temple with a new inclusion, avestibule, connecting the sanctum to the hall.[120] Otherdravida style temples from this period are the Naganatha Temple at Nagaral; the Banantigudi Temple, the Mahakutesvara Temple and the Mallikarjuna Temple at Mahakuta; and the Lower Sivalaya Temple, the Malegitti Sivalaya Temple (upper) and the Jambulingesvara Temple at Badami.[118] Located outside the Chalukyan architectural heartland, 140 km south-east of Badami, with a structure related to the Early Chalukya style is the unusual Parvati Temple atSanduru which dates to the late 7th century. It is medium-sized, 48 ft long and 37 ft wide. It has anagara (north Indian) stylevimana (tower) anddravida (south Indian) style parts, has nomantapa (hall) and consists of anantarala (vestibule) crowned with a barrel-vaulted tower (sukhanasi). The "staggered" base plan of the temple became popular much later, in the 11th century.[121][122]
The structural temples at Pattadakal, built in the 8th century and now aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site, marks the culmination and mature phase of Badami Chalukyan architecture. The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami are also from this period. There are ten temples at Pattadakal, six in southerndravida style and four in the northernnagara style. Well known among these are the Sangamesvara Temple (725), the Virupaksha Temple (740–745) and the Mallikarjuna Temple (740–745) in the southern style. The Papanatha temple (680) and Galaganatha Temple (740) are early attempts in thenagara –dravida fusion style.[123] Inscriptional evidence suggests that the Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna Temples were commissioned by the two queens of King Vikramaditya II after his military success over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.[118] Some well known names of Chalukyan architects are Revadi Ovajja, Narasobba andAnivarita Gunda.[124]
The reign of Western Chalukyas was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture. Their architecture served as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the 8th century and theHoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century.[125][126] The centre of their cultural and temple-building activity lay in theTungabhadra region of modern Karnataka state, encompassing the present-dayDharwad district; it included areas of present-dayHaveri andGadag districts.[127][128] Here, large medieval workshops built numerous monuments.[129] These monuments, regional variants of pre-existingdravida temples, defined theKarnata dravida tradition.[130]
The most notable of the many buildings dating from this period are theMahadeva Temple at Itagi in theKoppal district,[131][132] the Kasivisvesvara Temple atLakkundi in theGadag district,[133][134] the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti,[134] and the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali,[135] both in theDavangere district.[136] Other notable constructions are theDodda Basappa Temple atDambal (Gadag district),[137][138] theSiddhesvara Temple atHaveri (Haveri district),[139][140] and the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri (Dharwad district).[141][142] The Eastern Chalukyas built some fine temples at Alampur, in modern eastern Andhra Pradesh.[113][143]
.jpg)
TheAihole inscription of Pulakeshin II (634) written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language and Kannada script is considered as a classical piece of poetry.[35][144] A few verses of a poet named Vijayanaka who describes herself as the "darkSarasvati" have been preserved. It is possible that she may have been a queen of princeChandraditya (a son of Pulakeshin II).[145] Famous writers in Sanskrit from the Western Chalukya period areVijnaneshwara who achieved fame by writingMitakshara, a book on Hindu law, and KingSomeshvara III, a noted scholar, who compiled anencyclopaedia of all arts and sciences calledManasollasa.[146]
From the period of the Badami Chalukyas, references are made to the existence of Kannada literature, though not much has survived.[147] Inscriptions however refer to Kannada as the "natural language".[148] TheKappe Arabhatta record of c. 700 intripadi (three line) metre is the earliest available work in Kannada poetics.[149][150]Karnateshwara Katha, which was quoted later by Jayakirti, is believed to be a eulogy of Pulakeshin II and to have belonged to this period.[150] Other probable Kannada writers, whose works are not extant now but titles of which are known from independent references[151] are Syamakundacharya (650), who is said to have authored thePrabhrita, and Srivaradhadeva (also called Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier), the possible author of theChudamani ("Crest Jewel"), a lengthy commentary onlogic.[147][152][153][154]
The rule of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas, however, is a major event in the history of Kannada and Telugu literatures respectively. By the 9th–10th centuries, Kannada language had already seen some of its most notable writers. The "three gems" ofKannada literature,Adikavi Pampa,Sri Ponna andRanna belonged to this period.[155][156] In the 11th century,Telugu literature was born under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas with Nannaya Bhatta as its first writer.[156][157]
| Part ofa series on the |
| History of Karnataka |
|---|
 |
Categories |
The army was well organised and this was the reason for Pulakeshin II's success beyond the Vindyas.[158] It consisted of an infantry, a cavalry, an elephant corps and a powerful navy. The Chinese travellerHiuen-Tsiang wrote that the Chalukyan army had hundreds of elephants which were intoxicated with liquor prior to battle.[43][159] It was with their navy that they conqueredRevatidvipa (Goa), andPuri on east coast of India. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use the termKarnatakabala when referring to the powerful Chalukya armies.[160][29]
The government, at higher levels, was closely modelled after theMagadhan andSatavahana administrative machinery.[43] The empire was divided intoMaharashtrakas (provinces), then into smallerRashtrakas (Mandala),Vishaya (district),Bhoga (group of 10 villages) which is similar to theDasagrama unit used by theKadambas. At the lower levels of administration, the Kadamba style prevailed fully. The Sanjan plates of Vikramaditya I even mentions a land unit calledDasagrama.[161] In addition to imperial provinces, there were autonomous regions ruled by feudatories such as the Alupas, theGangas, theBanas and the Sendrakas.[162] Local assemblies and guilds looked after local issues. Groups ofmahajanas (learnedbrahmins) looked afteragraharas (calledghatika or "place of higher learning") such as at Badami which was served by 2000mahajans and Aihole which was served by 500mahajanas. Taxes were levied and were called theherjunka – tax on loads, thekirukula – tax on retail goods in transit, thebilkode – sales tax, thepannaya – betel tax,siddaya – land tax and thevaddaravula – tax levied to support royalty.[162]
The Badami Chalukyas minted coins that were of a different standard compared to the coins of the northern kingdoms.[163] The coins hadNagari and Kannada legends.[25] The coins of Mangalesha had the symbol of a temple on the obverse and a 'sceptre between lamps' or a temple on the reverse. Pulakeshin II's coins had a caparisoned lion facing right on the obverse and a temple on the reverse. The coins weighed 4 grams and were called, in old-Kannada,hun (orhonnu) and had fractions such asfana (orfanam) and thequarter fana (the modern day Kannada equivalent beinghana – which literally means "money").[164] A gold coin calledgadyana is mentioned in a record at the Vijayeshwara Temple atPattadakal, which later came to be known asvaraha (their royal emblem).[163]
The Chalukyas supported multiple faiths, but unlike the Rashtrakutas and Gangas whose personal religious affiliations are better known, the personal faith of the Chalukyas remains unclear. Scholars have given different views. some suggest Jainism while others suggest Hinduism. However, many scholars such as Hampa N and S. Settar point out thatJainism was a prominent religion during the early Chalukya period.[165][166]
Hampa and Settar suggest thatPuligere (modernLakshmeshwara), the first capital of the Chalukyas, was a majorJain centre. Historical records and local tradition mention that there were more than300 Basadis or likely more around Puligere region. The presentSomeshwara temple is believed, based on inscriptions and historical evidence, to have originally been a Jain temple built during the reign of Pulakeshin, along with the Shanka Basadi constructed byPulakeshin II and his family.[167][168] An inscription fixed on the left wall of theShanka Basadi at Basti-Bana atLakshmeshwara, records a grant of500 nivartanas of land to the north of Puligere-nagara for the worship of"Shankha-Jinendra (BhagwanNeminatha)". It was made by Durgasakti, son of Kundasakti and grandson of Vijayasakti of the Sendra lineage. The same inscription mentions that Pulakeshin II was also known as "Ereyamma".[169][170] The Shanka Basadi was one of the most famous Jain shrines during the Chalukya period.[171][172]
Hampa Nagarajaiah and Settar also noted that theMeguti Jain Basadi inscription, commissioned during the reign of Pulakeshin II, begins with the line“Jayati Bhagwan Jinendra” and mentions Pulakeshin’s military achievements. The composer of the inscription,Ravikirti, was aJain monk and likely served as the spiritual teacher ofPulakeshin II.[173] and Kumkumadevi, the younger sister ofVijayaditya (and queen ofAlupa King Chitravahana) made several grants and had a Jainbasadi called Anesajjebasadi constructed at Puligere,[174]Hampa Nagarajaiah further states that the Chalukyas had martial connections with several Jain dynasties, including theGangas,Alupas, andKalachuris.[175]
However, the Chalukyas also known for supportingHinduism as well and built several temples dedicated to Shaiva and Vaishnava deities.[176] Famous temples were built in places such as Pattadakal, Aihole and Mahakuta[177] The Badami kings were also supportedVedic priests to do their rituals and builted Hindu temples in Aihole. Sculptures of deities testify to the popularity of Hindu Gods such asVishnu,Shiva,Kartikeya,Ganapathi,Shakti,Surya andSapta Matrikas ("seven mothers"). The Badami kings also performed theAshwamedha.[178] The worship ofLajja Gauri, afertility goddess is known. The kings of the dynasty were however secular and actively encouraged all prominent religions. they builted the caves Caves temples to all faiths.[179]
The dynasty, therefore, extended patronage to all the major religions of India Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Ravikirti, the Jain monk and poet and spirtual advisor of Pulakeshin II. Queen Vinayavati consecrated a temple for theTrimurti ("Hindu trinity") at Badami. Sculptures of the Trimurti,Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva) andArdhanarishwara (half Shiva, half woman) provide ample evidence of their tolerance.[178] Buddhism was on a decline, having made its ingress into Southeast Asia. This is confirmed by the writings of Hiuen-Tsiang. Badami, Aihole, Kurtukoti and Puligere (modernLakshmeshwar in theGadag district) were primary places of learning.[citation needed]
The society under the Chalukyas was marked by religious pluralism and cultural diversity. Some kings had concubines (ganikas) who were given much respect, Inscriptions record donations to Jain basadis (temples), and prominent Jain scholars such as Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakeshin II, flourished under their reign.[180]Devadasis were however present in temples. SageBharata'sNatyashastra, the precursor toBharatanatyam, the classical dance of South India was popular and is seen in many sculptures and is mentioned in inscriptions.[181] Kumkumadevi the younger sister of Vijayaditya (and queen of Alupa King Chitravahana) made several grants and had a Jainbasadi called Anesajjebasadi constructed at Puligere,[174]Sati was perhaps absent since widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records. Some women from the royal family enjoyed political power in administration. Queen Vijayanka was a noted Sanskrit poet,[145] and the queens of Vikramaditya II, Lokamahadevi and Trailokyamahadevi made grants and possibly consecrated the Lokesvara Temple (now called Virupaksha temple) but also and the Mallikarjuna temple respectively at Pattadakal.[182]
The Chalukya era may be seen as the beginning of the fusion of cultures of northern and southern India, making way for the transmission of ideas between the two regions. This is seen clearly in the field of architecture. The Chalukyas spawned theVesara style of architecture which includes elements of the northernnagara and southerndravida styles. During this period, the expanding Sanskritic culture mingled with localDravidian vernaculars which were already popular.[54]Dravidian languages maintain these influences even today. This influence helped to enrich literature in these languages.[183] The Hindu legal system owes much to the Sanskrit workMitakshara by Vijnaneshwara in the court of Western Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps the greatest work in legal literature,Mitakshara is a commentary onYajnavalkya and is a treatise on law based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of India. EnglishmanHenry Thomas Colebrooke later translated into English the section on inheritance, giving it currency in the British Indian court system.[184] It was during the Western Chalukya rule that theBhakti movement gained momentum in South India, in the form ofRamanujacharya andBasavanna, later spreading into northern India.
A celebration calledChalukya utsava, a three-day festival of music and dance, organised by theGovernment of Karnataka, is held every year at Pattadakal, Badami and Aihole.[185] The event is a celebration of the achievements of the Chalukyas in the realm of art, craft, music and dance. The program, which starts at Pattadakal and ends in Aihole, is inaugurated by theChief Minister of Karnataka. Singers, dancers, poets and other artists from all over the country take part in this event. In the26 February 2006 celebration, 400 art troupes took part in the festivities. Colorful cutouts of theVaraha the Chalukya emblem,Satyashraya Pulakeshin (Pulakeshin II), famous sculptural masterpieces such asDurga,Mahishasuramardhini (Durga killing demonMahishasura) were present everywhere. The program at Pattadakal is namedAnivaritacharigund vedike after the famous architect of the Virupaksha temple,Gundan Anivaritachari. At Badami it is calledChalukya Vijayambika Vedike and at Aihole,Ravikirti Vedike after the famous poet and Jain monk (Ravikirti) in the court of Pulakeshin II.Immadi Pulikeshi, aKannada movie of the 1960s starringDr. Rajkumar celebrates the life and times of the great king.[185]
The Rashtrakuta inscriptions also praise the heroic nature of the Chalukyan army (Karṇāṭakabala, in their records)
there seems to have been some connection to the crowbar, chalke, pointing to very humble origins, likely as a leader of an agricultural group in the valley of the Malaprabha river, in the northern part of the modern state of Karnataka.
It has been reported that the story of agnikula is mot mentioned at all in the original version of the Raso preserved in the Fort Library at Bikaner.
Books
Web
| State symbols | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overviews | |||||||||
| History |
| ||||||||
| Districts anddivisions |
| ||||||||
| Geography | |||||||||
| Culture | |||||||||
| Literature | |||||||||
| Noted poets |
| ||||||||
| People andsociety | |||||||||
| Tourism | |||||||||
| Awards | |||||||||
| Media | |||||||||
| Topics | |
|---|---|
| Dynasties | |
| Districts |
|
| Commissionerates | |
| Major cities | |
| Tourism | |
| Municipal corporations | |
| Related lists | |
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
.png)
