Initially, the rulers of the Chagatai Khanate recognized the supremacy of theGreat Khan,[15] but by the reign ofKublai Khan,Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq no longer obeyed the emperor's orders. From 1363, the Chagatais progressively lostTransoxiana to theTimurids. The reduced realm came to be known asMoghulistan, which lasted until the late 15th century, when it broke off into theYarkent Khanate andTurpan Khanate. In 1680, the remaining Chagatai domains lost their independence to theDzungar Khanate. Finally, theKumul Khanate, an autonomous division of China established during theQing dynasty in 1696 and governed by descendants of Chagatai Khan, was abolished during theRepublic of China in 1930, ending the dynasty.
The Chagatai Khanate was also known as theDumdadu Mongγol Ulus (the Middle Mongolian Empire).[16] For example,Giovanni de' Marignolli, who visited Yuan dynasty in the1340s, referred to Almaliq (the capital of the Chagatai Khanate) as "Almalek of the Middle Empire (Imperium Medium)". In addition, theCatalan Atlas of 1375 refers to the area corresponding to Chagatai Khanate as "Imperium Medorum", a possible alternate name of "Imperium Medium".[17] In addition to the Latin sources mentioned above,Ibn Battuta records in Arabic that "His country [is in] the middle between the four of the powerful kings on the earth, i.e., King of China, King of India, King of Iraq and King Özbeg". This description suggests that the Chagatai Khanate was called the "Middle Empire" because it was located exactly in the middle of Eurasia.[18]
Matsui Dai introduced the expression "[missing] -dadu mongγo[l] u(l)us" in aUighur script document excavated fromTurfan, and based on the example of "Middle Empire (Imperium Medium)," argued that this should be read as "Dumdadu Mongγol Ulus". Matsui proposed that "it seems probable that Dua or his descendants took the brand-new official state name Dumdadu Mongol Ulus in order to affirm that their polity was renewed, as did the emperor Qubilai, who in 1271 adopted the official state name Dai Ön Yeke Mongol Ulus.[19]
WhenGenghis Khan died in 1227, his sonChagatai Khan inherited the regions roughly corresponding to the defunctQara Khitai Empire:Issyk-Kul,Ili River,Chu River,Talas River,Transoxania, and theTarim Basin. Chagatai was not fully independent in his khanate however and still received orders fromKarakorum. When he dismissed the governor of Transoxania,Mahmud Yalavach,Ögedei Khan reinstated Mahmud, whose dynasty continued to administer the region even after the death of Chagatai. In 1238 there was a Muslim uprising inBukhara, but Mahmud's son Mas'ud crushed it the next year before Mongol troops were able to arrive, thereby saving the populace from Mongol vengeance.[7]
Chagatai Khan died in 1242 and was succeeded by his grandsonQara Hülegü. He was too young to rule independently so the widowed khatunEbuskun ruled as regent in his place. In 1246,Güyük Khan replaced him with one of his uncles,Yesü Möngke.[21]
Yesü Möngke came to power because he was a personal friend of Güyük Khan. He was a drunkard who left the affairs of the state to his wife and minister Beha ad-Din Marghinani. In 1252 he was deposed byMöngke Khan, who installed Qara Hülegü again.[21]
Qara Hülegü died on his way home and was succeeded by his sonMubarak Shah.[21]
Mubarak Shah was too young to rule and state affairs were managed by his motherOrghana.[21] In 1260,Ariq Böke replaced Mubarak Shah withAlghu, a grandson ofChagatai Khan.[22] Alghu rebelled againstAriq Böke upon securing power and defected toKublai Khan's side in theToluid Civil War. Ariq Böke attacked him and while Alghu experienced initial success in fending off Ariq Böke's army, was forced to flee toSamarkand in 1263. Ariq Böke devastated theIli region in his absence. Alghu was able to recruit a new army with the aid of Orghana and Mas'ud Yalavach. He then went on to defeat an invasion byKaidu and drive out Ariq Böke, who surrendered to Kublai in 1264. Alghu died in 1265 and Orghana placed her son, Mubarak Shah, on the throne once again.[23]
Mubarak Shah was the first Chagatai khan to be converted to Islam.[24] His rule was cut short by his cousinGhiyas-ud-din Baraq, who deposed him with the support of Kublai Khan.[23]
Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq came into conflict withKublai Khan on the administration of theTarim Basin. Baraq drove out an agent sent by Kublai to govern the region and when Kublai sent a detachment of 6,000 horsemen, Baraq met them with 30,000 men, forcing them to retreat. Baraq also came into conflict withKaidu, who enlisted theGolden Horde khanMengu-Timur in attacking Baraq. With a Golden Horde army of 50,000 at his back, Kaidu forced Baraq to flee toTransoxania. In 1267, Baraq accepted peace with Kaidu, and relinquished the territory east of Transoxania. Kaidu then coerced Baraq into invading theIlkhanate.[25] Baraq attacked first, defeating Prince Buchin, the governor ofKhorasan, and brother ofAbaqa Khan. Abaqa rushed fromAzerbaijan and defeated Baraq nearHerat on 22 July 1270, forcing him to retreat. On the way back he fell from his horse and was crippled so he spent the winter in Bukhara where he died not long after. He converted to Islam before his death.[26]
Coinage of the Chaghatai Khans at the time of Qaidu.Samarqand mint. Dated AH 685 (AD 1285).
Baraq's four sons and two sons ofAlghu rebelled against Kaidu in the wake of Baraq's death, but they were continually defeated. Kaidu enthronedNegübei as the khan in Transoxania. When Negübei rebelled, he was killed and replaced with another khan,Buqa Temür in 1274. It is uncertain when Buqa Temür died, but after that, Baraq's sonDuwa was enthroned as khan. Meanwhile, Abaqa invaded Transoxania in 1272 and sacked Bukhara, carrying off 50,000 captives.[27]
In 1275, Duwa joined Kaidu in thewar against the Yuan dynasty but were repelled. In 1297, Duwa invaded thePunjab and devastated the region, but was defeated. Several invasions of theDelhi Sultanate also occurred but none were able to make any headway.[28] In September 1298, Duwa capturedTemür Khan's son-in-law, Korguz, and put him to death, but immediately after that suffered a disastrous defeat by Yuan forces. In 1301 they were defeated again in an attack onKarakorum and Kaidu died during the retreat.[29]
The divisions of theMongol Empire and main Asian polities, c. 1300[30]
After Kaidu's death in 1301, bothDuwa andKaidu's son Chapar recognized Yuan authority in 1303. However Duwa threw off his allegiance to Chapar. Both theYuan dynasty andDuwa attacked Chapar, forcing him to surrender his territory to Duwa in 1306. Meanwhile, Prince Turghai invaded theDelhi Sultanate in 1303 and looted theDelhi region. In 1304 they invaded again but suffered a crushing defeat. Duwa died soon after and was succeeded by his sonKönchek, who ruled only for a year and a half before he died. One ofBuqa Temür's brothers,Taliqu, seized power, but Duwa's family rebelled and killed him at a banquet. Duwa's younger sonKebek became khan. Kebek invaded the Delhi Sutunate again in 1305, looting theMultan region, but suffered a defeat on the way back. Chapar took advantage of the political turmoil to attack Kebek but was defeated and fled to the Yuan dynasty. Anotherkuriltai was held in the Chagatai Khanate, which elected another of Duwa's sons,Esen Buqa I, who took the throne ceded by Kebek. In 1315, Esen Buqainvaded the Ilkhanate in support of Duwa's grandson, Dawud Khoja, who had set himself up in easternAfghanistan. He defeated an Ilkhanate army on theMurgab and reached as far asHerat, but was forced to retreat when the Yuan dynasty attacked him from the east. The Yuan army devastated theIssyk-Kul region. In 1315 the Chagatayid princeYasa'ur defected to the Ilkhanate, only to rebel, takingKhorasan. Both Chagatai and Ilkhanate forces attacked Yasa'ur. He was killed as he fled. Esen Buqa I died in 1318, at which point Kebek returned to power. He made peace with the Ilkhanate and the Yuan dynasty and reigned until 1325.[31]
The Martyrdom of the Franciscans, painted in 1342 byAmbrogio Lorenzetti, took place inAlmaliq, capital of the Chagatai Khanate, in 1339. The central ruler who ordered the killing was the Chagatai usurper'Ali-Sultan (r.1339-1342).[32][33]
Kebek was succeeded by his three brothers in succession.Eljigidey andDuwa Temür each reigned for only a few months.Tarmashirin (1326–1334) converted toIslam and raided theDelhi Sultanate, reaching as far asDelhi. Tarmashirin was brought down by an anti-Muslim rebellion of the eastern tribes. A son ofDuwa,Changshi, was enthroned in 1335. One of his sons was baptized.
Pope Benedict XII appointed theFranciscan bishop Richard of Burgundy toAlmalik in 1339. But during the reign of'Ali-Sultan, Islam fully absorbed the ChagataiMongols and 'Ali persecuted non-Muslim religions. He is the one who ordered the extermination of the Franciscan congregation at Almaliq, and the killing of six Franciscan monks in 1339 (including bishop Richard of Burgundy, Pascal of Spain, Raymond of Provence and three others),[34] as depicted in the 1342 paintingThe Martyrdom of the Franciscans, byAmbrogio Lorenzetti.[32]
Giovanni de' Marignolli, a papal legate, arrived in the Ili valley the following year on his way to theYuan dynasty. He built a church and baptized some people during his stay, and the presence ofChristianity lasted until the end of the Mongol era.[32][35]
'Ali-Sultan (r.1339-1342), inThe Martyrdom of the Franciscans (1342).[36]
Mongol officer inThe Martyrdom of the Franciscans (1342).[36]
The Chagatai Khanate, with contemporary polities circa 1300, before the expansion of theTimurid Empire intoTransoxonia from 1363.[1]
The khanate became increasingly unstable in the following years and split in two during the 1340s.Transoxania was ruled byQazan Khan ibn Yasaur. In 1346 a tribal chief,Amir Qazaghan, killed Qazan and set upDanishmendji as puppet khan. Danishmendji was killed off a year later and replaced withBayan Qulï. Qazaghan madeHerat a tributary in 1351. He was assassinated in 1357 and was succeeded by his sonAbdullah, who killed Bayan Qulï in 1358. This aroused the anger of local lords such asHajji Beg, the uncle ofTamerlane. Hajji drove out Abdullah to theHindu Kush, where he died. From then on the Chagatayid khans of Transoxania served as nothing more but figureheads until it was annexed by theTimurid Empire.[37] The Timurids likewise continued to portray descendants of Chaghatai khans as khans (i.e. rulers) but in reality they were confined in their castles with no authority. They were political prisoners inSamarkand.[38]
In the east, the powerfulDughlats enthroned a son ofEsen Buqa I,Tughlugh Timur as khan ofMoghulistan in 1347. In 1350, Tughlugh converted toIslam. Hajji split Transoxania with Bayan Selduz but they were unable to stabilize the realm and it fell into disarray. In 1360, Tughlugh invaded Transoxania and conquered it. Hajji Beg fled in the face of overwhelming power. The future conquerorTimur entered Tughlugh's service and was appointed ruler ofShahr-i Sebz. After Tughlugh left Transoxania, Hajji Beg returned in force, only to be driven away again by Tughlugh. Hajji Beg was killed nearSebzewar. Tughlugh expanded his territory intoAfghanistan by defeating Amir Husayn. Thus the Chagatai Khanate was restored under Tughlugh.[39][40]
Following Tughlugh's death in 1363,Timur andAmir Husayn took over Transoxiana. Timur and Amir Husayn forced Tughlugh's successorIlyas Khoja out of Transoxania, and then Timur eliminated Amir Husayn as well, gaining mastery over Transoxiana (1369–1405). Like his predecessors, Timur maintained a puppet khan (Soyurgatmish) on the throne to legitimize his rule, but his khans were members of the house of Ögedei rather than descendants of Chagatai.[41]
Moghulistan in 1372Kingdom of Chagatai in theCatalan Atlas (1375). The KhanKebek (r. 1309–1325) is depicted with the caption:Here reigns the King Chabech (Kebek), lord of the Medeja [Media] Empire. He resides at Emalech (Almaliq).[43] His cities appear with the Chagatai flag ().[44][45]
Ilyas Khoja attackedTimur in 1364 and defeated him on the north bank of theSyr Darya. He then besiegedSamarkand but suffered harsh attrition due to an epidemic so that by the next year he was forced to retreat from Transoxania.[46] TheDughlatQamar-ud-din Khan Dughlat rebelled and killed Ilyas Khoja in 1368, taking the throne for himself. Ilyas Khoja's brotherKhizr Khoja fled toTurpan where he set up his own independent realm and converted the lastUyghurs there toIslam. In 1375, Timur invadedMoghulistan, looting theIli region. Qamar retaliated by raidingFergana until Timur put him to flight. Timur fell into an ambush and barely escaped, retreating toSamarkand. Timur attacked again in 1376 and 1383 but both times failed to capture the Moghul khan. In 1389 Timur attacked Khizr Khoja instead and forced him to flee into theGobi Desert. In 1390 Timur invaded Moghulistan and once again failed to find Qamar, but Qamar, having fled, was never heard of again. Khizr Khoja returned to Moghulistan and assumed power once more. He gave his daughter in marriage to Timur and made peace with him in 1397. Khizr Khoja died in 1399 and was succeeded by his three sons in succession:Shams-i-Jahan (1399–1408),Muhammad Khan (1408–1415), andNaqsh-i-Jahan (1415–1418). Upon Khizr Khoja's death, Timur took the opportunity to send another army to pillage Moghul lands.[47]
Uwais Khan came to power in 1418. During his reign he waged war on theOirats and was taken prisoner by their leaderEsen Taishi. Due to Uwais' royal lineage, Esen Taishi treated him with respect and released him. Uwais suffered two more defeats against the Oirats and was captured a second time. He was let go after sending his sister as hostage to Esen Taishi's family. Uwais died in 1429. Two factions supporting his two sonsYunus Khan andEsen Buqa II quarreled over the throne with Esen Buqa II emerging as the victor. Yunus fled to Samarkand. Under Esen Buqa II, the powerful Dughlat Sayyid Ali, who had helped him to the throne, became very influential and held bothKucha andKashgar. In 1451, Esen Buqa II raided the northern border of theTimurid Empire.[48]
The Timurid rulerAbu Sa'id Mirza schemed to split the Moghuls in two, so he summoned Yunus in 1456 and supported his authority in the Ili region. Yunus tried to conquer Kashgar but was repelled by Sayyid Ali and Esen Buqa II. Esen Buqa II died in 1462. His sonDost Muhammad was an inexperienced 17 year old. He plundered the territory of the Dughlats. By the time he died in 1469, his realm was in general revolt. Yunus took advantage of the situation to capture the Moghul capitalAksu. Dost Muhammad's young sonKebek Sultan was taken toTurpan, where he was proclaimed khan. Four years later, he was put to death by his followers and brought to Yunus. Yunus thus became the sole ruler of Moghulistan in 1472.[49]
Yunus' reign began with a raid by the Oirats under Esen Taishi's son Amasanj, who forced Yunus to flee to the Syr Darya. Yunus returned after the Oirats left with their pillage. In 1465, Yunus faced a rebellion byMirza Abu Bakr Dughlat, who seizedYarkand andKhotan. Yunus attempted twice to remove to Abu Bakr but was defeated both times in 1479 and 1480, after which Abu Bakr also seized Kashgar. In the east, Yunus capturedHami fromKara Del, which was then a tributary of theMing dynasty. A Ming army evicted the Moghuls from the city but failed to catch them, and they soon returned to Hami afterwards. Yunus also took advantage of political infighting in the west to vassalizeUmar Shaikh Mirza II's realm inFergana. Yunus moved toTashkent in 1484 and settled down, giving up the nomadic way of life. His nomadic followers became alarmed by this action and departed for the steppes, taking with them Yunus' second sonAhmad Alaq. When Yunus died in 1486, his realm was divided between Western Moghulistan, ruled byMahmud Khan, and Eastern Moghulistan, ruled by Ahmad Alaq in the northeast.[50]
Following the death of their father Yunus Khan,Mahmud Khan ruled over the western part of Moghulistan fromTashkent, while his brotherAhmad Alaq ruled over the eastern part.[50] In 1488, theTimurids ofSamarkand tried to recover Tashkent but were defeated by Mahmud. In 1487, Mahmud gave refuge toMuhammad Shaybani, who then seizedBukhara and Samarkand from the Timurids in 1500, making himself ruler ofTransoxania. Shaybani immediately turned against Mahmud, who called his brotherAhmad Alaq for help, and defeated both Moghul khans and took them prisoner. Shaybani released them soon after, but kept Tashkent andSairam. Ahmad died soon after. Mahmud was captured again in 1508 and put to death by Shaybani, marking the last time the Chagatayids were ejected from Transoxania.[51]
In 1514,Mansur Khan's brotherSultan Said Khan captured Kashgar,Yarkand, andKhotan fromMirza Abu Bakr Dughlat, who had ruled in Mahmud's absence, and forced him to flee toLadakh. This marked the final separation of Moghulistan into two realms, with Said situated in Kashgar where he founded theYarkent Khanate, and Mansur remained Turpan in theTurpan Khanate.[52] In 1529, Said attackedBadakhshan, and in 1531, he invaded Ladakh. During the campaign, Said fell ill from altitude sickness and died in July 1533 on the homeward journey. He was succeeded by his sonAbdurashid Khan. Abdurashid came into conflict with theDughlats and persecuted one of their leaders, Sayyid Muhammad-mirza. Abdurashid spent his reign fighting theKyrgyz people and theKazakhs, who made incursions on theIli region andIssyk Kul. He was ultimately unsuccessful in preventing the Kyrgyz-Kazakhs from seizing the Ili region. Abdurashid was succeeded in 1565 by his sonAbdul Karim Khan, who shifted the capital to Yarkand. Abdul was succeeded in 1590 by his brotherMuhammad Sultan, who repelled an invasion by theKhanate of Bukhara underAbdullah Khan II.[53] Muhammad died in 1610 and was succeeded by his sonShudja ad Din Ahmad Khan, who was assassinated in 1619, and replaced by Abd al-Latif (Afak) Khan. Abd al-Latif (Afak) Khan was succeeded by his nephew Sultan Ahmad Khan (Pulat Khan) in 1631. Pulat was overthrown by Abdallah (Moghul Khan) in 1636. Abdallah stabilized the court and exiled a number of old nobles toIndia. He repelled Oirat inroads in the Khotan andAksu regions, and entered a tributary relationship with theQing dynasty in 1655. Friendly relations were also established withBukhara and theMughal Empire. In 1667, Abdallah's son Yulbars Khan removed his father from power.[54]
Yarkent and Turpan in 1517
From the late 16th century onward, the Yarkent Khanate fell under the influence of theKhojas. The Khojas wereMuslims who claimed descent fromMuhammad or from the first four Arabcaliphs. By the reign of Said in the early 16th century, the Khojas already had a strong influence in court and over the khan. In 1533, an especially influential Khoja named Makhdum-i Azam arrived in Kashgar, where he settled and had two sons. These two sons hated each other and they passed down their mutual hatred down to their children. The two lineages came to dominate large parts of the khanate, splitting it between two factions: the Aq Taghliq (White Mountain) in Kashgar and the Qara Taghliq (Black Mountain) in Yarkand. Yulbars patronized the Aq Taghliqs and suppressed the Qara Taghliqs, which caused much resentment, and resulted in his assassination in 1670. He was succeeded by his son who ruled for only a brief period beforeIsmail Khan was enthroned. Ismail reversed the power struggle between the two Muslim factions and drove out the Aq Taghliq leader,Afaq Khoja. Afaq fled toTibet, where the5th Dalai Lama aided him in enlisting the help ofGaldan Boshugtu Khan, ruler of theDzungar Khanate.[55]
In 1680, Galdan led 120,000Dzungars into the Yarkent Khanate. They were aided by the Aq Taghliqs andHami andTurpan, which had already submitted to the Dzungars. Ismail's son Babak Sultan died in the resistance against them in the battle for Kashgar. The general Iwaz Beg died in the defense of Yarkand. The Dzungars defeated the Moghul forces without much difficulty and took Ismail and his family prisoner. Galdan installedAbd ar-Rashid Khan II, son of Babak, as puppet khan. The new khan forcedAfaq Khoja to flee again, but Abd ar-Rashid's reign was also ended unceremoniously two years later when riots erupted in Yarkand. He was replaced by his brother Muhammad Imin Khan. Muhammad sought help from theQing dynasty,Khanate of Bukhara, and theMughal Empire in combating the Dzungars. In 1693, Muhammad conducted a successful attack on the Dzungar Khanate, taking 30,000 captives. Unfortunately Afaq Khoja appeared again and overthrew Muhammad in a revolt led by his followers. Afaq's son Yahiya Khoja was enthroned but his reign was cut short in 1695 when both he and his father were killed while suppressing local rebellions. In 1696,Akbash Khan was placed on the throne, but thebegs of Kashgar refused to recognize him, and instead allied with theKyrgyz to attack Yarkand, taking Akbash prisoner. The begs of Yarkand went to the Dzungars, who sent troops and ousted the Kyrgyz in 1705. The Dzungars installed a non-Chagatayid ruler Mirza Alim Shah Beg, thereby ending the rule of Chagatai khans forever.[56]
Ahmad Alaq's reduced nomadic realm (known as theTurpan Khanate) came into frequent conflict with theOirats,Kyrgyz people, andKazakhs. According to theTarikh-i Rashidi, the Oirats called himAlasha, "the Killer". In 1482,Hami was restored toKara Del under Qanšin, but in 1488, Ahmad killed Qanšin and retook the city. The next year Ahmad was driven out of Hami. In 1493, Ahmad captured Kara Del's ruler Šamba and held him prisoner. Šamba received support from theMing dynasty, which closed its borders toTurpan and expelled its traders from their markets, which eventually forced Ahmad to give up his ambitions in Hami due to unrest in his realm. In 1499 Ahmad retookKashgar andYengisar fromMirza Abu Bakr Dughlat.[57]
A "Moghol Embassy", as seen by theVOCembassy to Beijing in October 1656. The emissaries portrayed had probably come fromTurpan, rather than all the way from theMoghul India. They wore dresses of blue silk, decorated with dragons.[58][59]
Around 1500,Muhammad Shaybani attacked Ahmad's brotherMahmud Khan, who appealed to Ahmad for help. Muhammad defeated both Ahmad and Mahmud, seizingTashkent andSairam. Ahmad was captured but released soon after. He died of paralysis inAksu a year later.[51] His brotherMansur Khan succeeded him. His reign began with difficulties with the powerfulDughlat of Kashgar,Mirza Abu Bakr Dughlat, plundering the cities ofKucha and Aksu. In 1514, Mansur's brotherSultan Said Khan captured Kashgar,Yarkand, andKhotan from Abu Bakr and forced him to flee toLadakh. This marked the final separation of Moghulistan into two realms, with Said situated in Kashgar, and Mansur in Turpan, otherwise known asUyghuristan.[60]
Yarkent dignitaries (葉爾奇木) inBeijing in 1761.万国来朝图
In 1513, Kara Del submitted to Mansur and in 1517 Mansur moved to Hami permanently, where he launched raids against the Ming dynasty. Mansur was succeeded in 1545 by his sonShah Khan. Shah fought with his brother Muhammad, who seized part of Hami and allied with the Oirats. Shah died in 1560 and Muhammad succeeded him. Muhammad had to fight against a third brother, Sufi Sultan, who tried to enlist the Ming in support of his claim to the throne. After Muhammad's death in 1570, the Turpan Khanate faded from historical texts. The last thing heard of them are embassies sent from Turpan toBeijing in 1647 and 1657. TheQing dynasty regarded them as embassies from a genuine Chagatayid.[61][62]
The Chagatai Mongols remained mostly nomadic in their mode of government and did not settle down in urban centers until the late 15th century. The Mongols of the Chagatai Khanate treated the urban dwellers of Transoxiana and the Tarim Basin as dependencies.[63]
^Black, Edwin (1991).The Modernization of Inner Asia. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 32–33.The administrative and bureaucratic language of towns and khanates was Persian. Whereas Persian was the dominant literary language of the area, Chagatai shared its distinction by being the only Turkic literary language in Central Asia from the fourteenth to the early twentieth century.
^Alternative spellings ofChagatai includeChagata,Chugta,Chagta,Djagatai,Jagatai,Chaghtai etc.
^See Barnes, Parekh and Hudson, p. 87; Barraclough, p. 127;Historical Maps on File, p. 2.27; and LACMA for differing versions of the boundaries of the khanate.
^Dai Matsui – A Mongolian Decree from the Chaghataid Khanate Discovered at Dunhuang. Aspects of Research into Central Asian Buddhism, 2008, pp. 159–178
^Çinar, Orhan. "The First Ruler of the East Çağatay Khanate: A Study on Tuğluk Timur Han and her Period".Journal of Academic Social Science:201–208.doi:10.29228/ASOS.43231.
^Lach, Donald F. (Donald Frederick) (1965).Asia in the making of Europe. Chicago : University of Chicago Press. p. 238.ISBN978-0-226-46733-7.We can find no other record of a Mughul embassy of 1656 to Pekin (...) Nieuhof's report of a Mughul embassy to Peking was taken at face value by C. B. K. Roa Sahib, "Shah Jehan's Embassy to China, 1656 a.d.," Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society, Silver Jubilee Number XXV (1934-35), 117-21. By examination of the Chinese sources, Luciano Petech concluded that Nieuhof was mistaken in this identification. He argues, quite convincingly, that these were probably emissaries from Turfan in central Asia. See Petech, "La pretesa ambascita di Shah Jahan alia Cina," Rivista degli studi orientali, XXVI (1951), 124-27.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
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Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland, S. Frederick Starr
Ahmad Alaq (1487–1503) Mansur Khan (1503–1548) Shah Khan (1543–1560) Muhammad Khan ibn Mansur Khan (1570) Koraish Sultan (1570–1588) Muhammad Sultan (1588–1591) Abduraim Khan (1591-1636) Abu'l Muhammad Khan (1636-1653) Ibrahim Sultan (1653–1655) Sultan Said Baba Khan (1655–1680)
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