Sri Lanka,[a] historically known asCeylon,[b] and officially theDemocratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is anisland country inSouth Asia. It lies in theIndian Ocean, southwest of theBay of Bengal, separated from theIndian peninsula by theGulf of Mannar and thePalk Strait. It shares amaritime border with theMaldives in the southwest andIndia in the northwest.Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is the legislative capital of Sri Lanka and the largest city,Colombo is the administrative and judicial capital which is the nation's political, financial and cultural centre.Kandy is the second-largest urban area and also the capital of the last native kingdom of Sri Lanka. The most spoken languageSinhala, is spoken by the majority of the population (approximately 17 million).Tamil is also spoken by approximately five million people, making it the second most-spoken language in Sri Lanka.
Sri Lanka has a population of approximately 22 million and is home to several cultures, languages and ethnicities. TheSinhalese people form the majority of the population, followed by theSri Lankan Tamils, who are the largest minority group and are concentrated in northern Sri Lanka; both groups have played an influential role in the island's history. Other long-established groups include theMoors,Indian Tamils,Burghers,Malays,Chinese, andVedda.[12]
In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names. According to theMahāvaṃsa, the legendaryPrince Vijaya named the islandTambapaṇṇĩ ("copper-red hands" or "copper-red earth"), because his followers' hands were reddened by thered soil of the area where he landed.[20][21] InHindu mythology, the termLankā ("Island") appears but it is unknown whether it refers to the island. The Tamil termEelam (Tamil:ஈழம்,romanized: īḻam) was used to designate the whole island inSangam literature.[22][23] The island was knownunder Chola rule asMummudi Cholamandalam ("realm of thethree crowned Cholas").[24]
Ancient Greek geographers called itTaprobanā (Ancient Greek:Ταπροβανᾶ) orTaprobanē (Ταπροβανῆ)[25] from the wordTambapanni. The Persians and Arabs referred to it asSarandīb (the origin of the word "serendipity") fromSanskritSiṃhaladvīpaḥ.[26][27]Ceilão, the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese when they arrived in 1505,[28] was transliterated into English asCeylon.[29] As a Britishcrown colony, the island was known as Ceylon; it achieved independence as theDominion of Ceylon in 1948.
The country is now known in Sinhala asŚrī Laṅkā (Sinhala:ශ්රී ලංකා) and in Tamil asIlaṅkai (Tamil:இலங்கை,IPA:[iˈlaŋɡaɪ]). In 1972, its formal name was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka". Later, on 7 September 1978, it was changed to the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka".[30][31] As the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority.[32]
The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years and possibly even as far back as 500,000 years.[33] The era spans thePalaeolithic,Mesolithic, and earlyIron Ages. Among thePaleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka,Pahiyangala (37,000 BP), named after theChinese travellermonkFaxian;[34]Batadombalena (28,500 BP);[35] andBelilena (12,000 BP) are the most important. In these caves, archaeologists have found the remains ofanatomically modernhumans which they have namedBalangoda Man, and other evidence[36] suggesting that they may have engaged inagriculture and kept domestic dogs for driving game.[37]
The earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of theVedda people,[38] an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka.
During the protohistoric period (1000–500 BCE) Sri Lanka was culturally united with southern India,[39] and shared the same megalithic burials,pottery, iron technology, farming techniques andmegalithic graffiti.[40][41] This cultural complex spread from southern India along with Dravidian clans such as theVelir, prior to the migration ofPrakrit speakers.[42][43][40]
One of the first written references to the island is found in the IndianepicRamayana, which provides details of a kingdom namedLanka that was created by the divine sculptorVishvakarma forKubera, the God of Wealth.[44] It is said that Kubera was overthrown by hisrakshasa stepbrother,Ravana.[45]
According to theMahāvaṃsa, aPāḷi chronicle written in the 5th century CE, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are said to be theYakshas andNagas. Sinhalese history traditionally starts in 543 BCE with the arrival ofPrince Vijaya, a semi-legendary prince who sailed with 700 followers to Sri Lanka, after being expelled fromVanga kingdom (present-dayBengal).[46] He established theKingdom of Tambapanni, near modern-dayMannar. Vijaya (Singha) is the first of the approximately189 monarchs of Sri Lanka described in chronicles such as theDīpavaṃsa,Mahāvaṃsa,Cūḷavaṃsa, andRājāvaliya.[47]
OncePrakrit speakers had attained dominance on the island, theMahāvaṃsa further recounts the later migration of royal brides and service castes from the TamilPandya kingdom to theAnuradhapura kingdom in the early historic period.[48]
TheAnuradhapura period (377 BCE – 1017 CE) began with the establishment of theAnuradhapura kingdom in 380 BCE during the reign ofPandukabhaya. Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital city of the country for nearly 1,400 years.[49] Ancient Sri Lankans excelled at building certain types ofstructures such astanks,dagobas and palaces.[50] Society underwent a major transformation during the reign ofDevanampiya Tissa, with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BCE,[51]Mahinda, abhikkhu and the son of theMauryan EmperorAshoka arrived inMihintale carrying the message of Buddhism.[52] His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout theSinhalese population.[53]
Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain manyBuddhist schools and monasteries and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan Bhikkhus studied in India's famous ancient Buddhist University ofNalanda, which was destroyed byBakhtiyar Khalji. It is probable that many of the scriptures from Nalanda are preserved in Sri Lanka's many monasteries and that the written form of theTripiṭaka, including Sinhalese Buddhist literature, were part of the University of Nalanda.[54] In 245 BCE,bhikkhunīSanghamitta arrived with theJaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historicalBodhi Tree under whichGautama Buddha became enlightened.[55] It is considered the oldest human-planted tree (with a continuous historical record) in the world. (Bodhivaṃsa)[56][57]
Sri Lanka experienced the first of many foreign invasions during the reign ofSuratissa, who was defeated by two horse traders namedSena and Guttika from South India.[53] The next invasion came immediately in 205 BCE by aChola namedElara, who overthrewAsela and ruled the country for 44 years.Dutugamunu, the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king,Kavan Tissa, defeated Elara in theBattle of Vijithapura. During its two and a half millennia of existence, theSinhala kingdom was invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South Indian dynasties such as theChola,Pandya, andPallava.[citation needed] There also were incursions by the kingdoms ofKalinga (modernOdisha) and from theMalay Peninsula as well.[citation needed]
TheSigiriya ("Lion Rock"), a rock fortress and city, built by KingKashyapa (477–495 CE) as a new more defensible capital. It was also used as a Buddhist monastery after the capital was moved back toAnuradhapura.
TheFourth Theravāda Council was held at theAnuradhapura Maha Viharaya in Sri Lanka under the patronage ofValagamba in 25 BCE. The council was held in response to a year in which the harvests in Sri Lanka were particularly poor and manyBuddhist monks subsequently died of starvation. Because thePali Canon was at that timeoral literature maintained in several recensions bydhammabhāṇakas (dharma reciters), the surviving monks recognised the danger of not writing it down so that even if some of the monks whose duty it was to study and remember parts of the Canon for later generations died, the teachings would not be lost.[58] After the council,palm-leaf manuscripts containing the completed Canon were taken to other countries such asBurma,Thailand,Cambodia andLaos.
Sri Lanka was the first Asian country known to have a female ruler:Anula of Anuradhapura (r. 47–42 BCE).[59] Sri Lankan monarchs undertook some remarkable construction projects such asSigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", built during the reign ofKashyapa I, who ruled between 477 and 495. The Sigiriya rock fortress is surrounded by an extensive network of ramparts and moats. Inside this protective enclosure were gardens, ponds, pavilions, palaces and other structures.[60][61]
Following a 17-year-long campaign,Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.[63][64] Upon his request, ordained monks were sent fromBurma to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign.[65] During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three sub-territories, namely,Ruhunu, Pihiti andMaya.[66]
Sri Lanka'sirrigation system was extensively expanded during the reign ofParākramabāhu the Great (1153–1186).[67] This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.[68][69] He built 1,470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3,910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2,376 mini-reservoirs.[70] His most famous construction is theParakrama Samudra,[71] the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Burma) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.[72]
After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In 1215,Kalinga Magha, an invader with uncertain origins, identified as the founder of the Jaffna kingdom, invaded and captured theKingdom of Polonnaruwa. He sailed fromKalinga[70] 690 nautical miles on 100 large ships with a 24,000 strong army. Unlike previous invaders, helooted, ransacked and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery.[73] His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions ofRajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of nativeSinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.[74][75]
Sri Lanka never really recovered from the effects of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom toDambadeniya. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into theJaffna kingdom.[74][75] The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest led by kingParâkramabâhu VI's adopted son,Prince Sapumal.[76] He ruled the North from 1450 to 1467 CE.[77]
The next three centuries starting from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of capitals in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya,Yapahuwa,Gampola,Raigama,Kotte,[78]Sitawaka, and finally,Kandy. In 1247, the Malay kingdom ofTambralinga which was a vassal ofSri Vijaya led by their kingChandrabhanu[79] briefly invaded Sri Lanka fromInsular Southeast Asia. They were then expelled by the South Indian Pandyan dynasty.[80] However, this temporary invasion reinforced the steady flow of the presence of variousAustronesian merchant ethnic groups, fromSumatrans (Indonesia) toLucoes (Philippines) into Sri Lanka which occurred since 200 BCE.[81] Chinese admiralZheng He and his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri Lanka in 1409 and got intobattle with the local kingVira Alakesvara of Gampola. Zheng He captured King Vira Alakesvara and later released him.[82][83][84][85] Zheng He erected theGalle Trilingual Inscription, a stone tablet atGalle written in threelanguages (Chinese,Tamil, andPersian), to commemorate his visit.[86][87] Thestele was discovered by S. H. Thomlin at Galle in 1911 and is now preserved in theColombo National Museum.
The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorerLourenço de Almeida, the son ofFrancisco de Almeida, in 1505.[88] In 1517, the Portuguese built a fort at the port city ofColombo and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592, after decades of intermittent warfare with the Portuguese,Vimaladharmasuriya I moved his kingdom to the inland city ofKandy, a location he thought more secure from attack.[89] In 1619, succumbing to attacks by thePortuguese, the independent existence of theJaffna kingdom came to an end.[90]
During the reign of theRajasinha II, Dutch explorers arrived on the island. In 1638, the king signed atreaty with theDutch East India Company to get rid of the Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas.[91] The followingDutch–Portuguese War resulted in a Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in the areas they had captured, thereby violating the treaty they had signed in 1638. TheBurgher people, a distinct ethnic group, emerged as a result of intermingling between the Dutch and native Sri Lankans in this period.[92]
The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka.[93] In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacredTooth Relic—the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst theSinhalese—to Kandy and built theTemple of the Tooth.[93] In spite of on-going intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom survived. Later, a crisis of succession emerged in Kandy upon kingVira Narendra Sinha's death in 1739. He was married to aTelugu-speakingNayakkar princess from South India (Madurai) and was childless by her.[93]
Eventually, with the support ofbhikkhu Weliwita Sarankara and ignoring the right of"Unambuwe Bandara", the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princesses, overlooking Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhaleseconcubine.[94] The new king was crownedSri Vijaya Rajasinha later that year. Kings of the Nayakkar dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.[95]
During theNapoleonic Wars, fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, theBritish Empire occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called the colony ofBritish Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796.[96] Two years later, in 1798,Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha, third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a fever. Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old Kannasamy, was crowned.[97] The young king, now namedSri Vikrama Rajasinha, faced aBritish invasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated. The First Kandyan War ended in a stalemate.[97]
The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by theColebrooke–Cameron reforms of 1833.[100] They introduced autilitarian andliberal political culture to the country based on therule of law and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government.[100] Anexecutive council and alegislative council were established, later becoming the foundation of a representative legislature. By this time, experiments withcoffee plantations were largely successful.[101]
Soon, coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. Falling coffee prices as a result of thedepression of 1847 stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and to reintroduce a form ofrajakariya, requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent.[101] These harsh measures antagonised the locals, andanother rebellion broke out in 1848.[102] A devastating leaf disease,Hemileia vastatrix, struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within fifteen years.[103] The British quickly found a replacement: abandoning coffee, they began cultivating tea instead.Tea production in Sri Lanka thrived in the following decades. Large-scale rubber plantations began in the early 20th century.
By the end of the 19th century, a new educatedsocial class transcending race andcaste arose through British attempts to staff theCeylon Civil Service and the legal, educational, engineering, and medical professions with natives.[104] New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in theCeylon Legislative Council on a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalists reacted againstChristian missionary activities.[105][106] The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique harmony among Sinhalese andTamil political leadership, which has since been lost.[107]
In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership ofPonnambalam Arunachalam,[108] pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular support, and with the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s.[109]
TheDonoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduceduniversal adult franchise (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly createdState Council of Ceylon, which succeeded the legislative council.[110][111] In 1937, Tamil leaderG. G. Ponnambalam demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by theSoulbury reforms of 1944–45.
The formal ceremony marking the start of self-rule, with the opening of the first parliament atIndependence SquareJ. R. Jayewardene was the most influential political figure of Sri Lanka in the 1970s and 1980s.
S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike was elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule had a profound influence through his self-proclaimed role of "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture".[116] He introduced the controversialSinhala Only Act, recognisingSinhala as the only official language of the government. Although partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture.[117][118][119]
TheFederal Party (FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance (satyagraha) against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement (Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam Pact) withS. J. V. Chelvanayakam, leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict.[120] The pact proved ineffective in the face of ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various governmentcolonisation schemes, contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders.[121] Bandaranaike wasassassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.[122]
1960 saw the election of Sirimavo Bandaranaike as Ceylon's Prime Minister and the first time in world history that the heads of both state and government in a country were female.
Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960, and withstood anattempted coup d'état in 1962. During her second term as prime minister, the government instituted socialist economic policies, strengthening ties with theSoviet Union and China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced aMarxist insurrection, which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, the country became arepublic named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s.[123] Thepolicy of standardisation by the Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrolment, which was in essence anaffirmative action to assist geographically disadvantaged students to obtain tertiary education,[124] resulted in reducing the proportion of Tamil students at university level and acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy.[125][126] The assassination ofJaffnaMayorAlfred Duraiyappah in 1975 by theLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) marked a crisis point.[127][128]
Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training.[133][134][135] In 1987, theIndo-Sri Lanka Accord was signed and theIndian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilise the region by neutralising the LTTE.[136] The same year, theJVP launched itssecond insurrection in Southern Sri Lanka,[137] necessitating redeployment of the IPKF in 1990.[138] In October 1990, the LTTEexpelled Sri Lankan Moors (Muslims by religion) from northern Sri Lanka.[139] In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a Norwegian-mediated ceasefire agreement.[119]
The2004 Asian tsunami killed over 30,000 and displaced over 500,000 people in Sri Lanka.[140][141] From 1985 to 2006, the Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held four rounds of peace talks without success. Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008.[119] In 2009, under thePresidency ofMahinda Rajapaksa, theSri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the LTTE, bringing an end to the 26 year long civil war on 19 May 2009,[142][143][144][145] and re-established control of the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government.[146] Overall, between 60,000 and 100,000 people were killed during the course of the 26 year long conflict.[147][148]
Economic troubles in Sri Lanka began in 2019, when asevere economic crisis occurred caused by rapidly increasing foreign debt, massive government budget deficits due to tax cuts, falling foreign remittances, a food crisis caused by mandatory organic farming along with a ban on chemical fertilizers, and a multitude of other factors.[153] The Sri Lankan Government officially declared the ongoing crisis to be the worsteconomic crisis in the country in 73 years.[154] In August 2021, a food emergency was declared.[155] In June 2022, Prime MinisterRanil Wickremesinghe declared the collapse of the Sri Lankan economy in parliament.[156] The crisis resulted in Sri Lanka defaulting on its $51 billion sovereign debt for the first time in its history, along with double-digit inflation, a crippling energy crisis that led to approximately 15 hour power cuts, severe fuel shortages leading to the suspension of fuel to all non-essential vehicles, and more such economic disorder.[157][158] Due to the crisis, massivestreet protests erupted all over the country, with protesters demanding the resignation of the PresidentGotabaya Rajapaksa. The protests culminated with the storming and siege of thePresident's House on July 9, 2022, and resulted in President Gotabaya Rajapaksa fleeing to Singapore[159] and later emailing his resignation to parliament, formally announcing his resignation and making him the first Sri Lankan president to resign in the middle of his term.[160] On the same day the President's House was stormed, protesters besieged and stormed theprivate residence of the prime minister and burnt it down.[161]
AfterParliament elected the new president asRanil Wickremesinghe on20 July 2022, Wickremesinghe took oath as the ninth President of Sri Lanka.[162] He implemented various economic reforms in efforts to stabilize Sri Lanka's economy, which has shown slight improvement since.[163][164] On 23 September 2024,Anura Kumara Dissanayake was sworn in as Sri Lanka's new president after winning the presidentialelection as a left-wing candidate.[165] On 14 November 2024, President Anura Kumara Dissanayake'sNational People's Power (NPP), a left-leaning alliance, received a two-thirds majority in parliament in Sri Lankanparliamentary election.[166]
Sri Lanka, an island inSouth Asia shaped as a teardrop or a pear/mango,[167] lies on theIndian Plate, a majortectonic plate that was formerly part of theIndo-Australian Plate.[168] It is in the Indian Ocean southwest of theBay of Bengal, between latitudes5° and10° N, and longitudes79° and82° E.[169] Sri Lanka is separated from the mainland portion of theIndian subcontinent by theGulf of Mannar andPalk Strait. According toHindu mythology, a land bridge existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only achain of limestone shoals remaining abovesea level.[170] Legends claim that it was passable on foot up to 1480 CE, untilcyclones deepened the channel.[171][172] Portions are still as shallow as 1 metre (3 ft), hindering navigation.[173] The island consists mostly of flat to rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. The highest point isPidurutalagala, reaching 2,524 metres (8,281 ft) above sea level.
Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is theMahaweli River, extending 335 kilometres (208 mi).[174] These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of 10 metres (33 ft) or more. The highest isBambarakanda Falls, with a height of 263 metres (863 ft).[175] Sri Lanka's coastline is 1,585 km (985 mi) long.[176] Sri Lanka claims anexclusive economic zone extending 200nautical miles, which is approximately 6.7 times Sri Lanka's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such asfringingcoral reefs and shallow beds of coastal andestuarineseagrasses.[177]
The climate istropical and warm because of moderating effects of ocean winds. Mean temperatures range from 17 °C (62.6 °F) in theCentral Highlands, where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of 33 °C (91.4 °F) in low-altitude areas. Average yearly temperatures range from 28 °C (82.4 °F) to nearly 31 °C (87.8 °F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 14 °C (25 °F) to 18 °C (32 °F).[182]
The rainfall pattern is influenced bymonsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. The "wet zone" and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands receive up to 2,500 millimetres (98.4 in) of rain each year, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of Sri Lanka constitute the "dry zone", which receives between 1,200 and 1,900 mm (47 and 75 in) of rain annually.[183]
The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least rain at 800 to 1,200 mm (31 to 47 in) per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimestropical cyclones bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall.[184] An increase in average rainfall coupled with heavier rainfall events has resulted in recurrent flooding and related damages to infrastructure, utility supply and the urban economy.[185]
Western Ghats of India and Sri Lanka were included among the first 18 globalbiodiversity hotspots due to high levels of species endemism. The number of biodiversity hotspots has now increased to 34.[187] Sri Lanka has the highest biodiversity per unit area among Asian countries for flowering plants and all vertebrate groups except birds.[188] A remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals, areendemic.[189] Sri Lanka supports a rich avifauna of that stands at 453 species and this include 240 species of birds that are known to breed in the country.33 species are accepted by some ornithologists as endemic while some ornithologists consider only 27 are endemic and the remaining six are considered as proposed endemics.[190] Sri Lanka's protected areas are administrated by two government bodies; TheDepartment of Forest Conservation and theDepartment of Wildlife Conservation. Department of Wildlife Conservation administrates 61 wildlife sanctuaries, 22 national parks, four nature reserves, three strict nature reserves, and one jungle corridor while Department of Forest Conservation oversees 65 conservation forests and one national heritage wilderness area. 26.5% of the country's land area is legally protected. This is a higher percentage of protected areas when compared to the rest of Asia.[191]
Yala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks. TheWilpattu National Park in the northwest, the largest national park, preserves the habitats of many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has fourbiosphere reserves:Bundala,Hurulu Forest Reserve, theKanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya, andSinharaja.[194] Sinharaja is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusivered-faced malkoha, thegreen-billed coucal and theSri Lanka blue magpie. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Of the 211 woody trees and lianas within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs, and seedlings, has been estimated at 240,000 individuals per hectare. The Minneriya National Park borders theMinneriya Tank, which is an important source of water for elephants inhabiting the surrounding forests. Dubbed "The Gathering", the congregation of elephants can be seen on the tank-bed in the late dry season (August to October) as the surrounding water sources steadily disappear. The park also encompasses a range of micro-habitats which include classic dry zone tropical monsoonal evergreen forest, thick stands of giant bamboo, hilly pastures (patanas), and grasslands (talawas).[195]
During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900 km2 (730 sq mi) as national parks. Statistics of Sri Lanka's forest cover show rapid deforestation from 1956 to 2010. In 1956, 44.2 percent of the country's land area had forest cover. Forest cover depleted rapidly in recent decades; 29.6 percent in 1999, 28.7 percent in 2010.[196]
This sectionneeds expansion with: is missing explication of the constitutional socialist nature of the republic that is reflected in the formal name of the country: "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka". You can help bymaking an edit requestadding to it.(July 2022)
Legislative: TheParliament of Sri Lanka is aunicameral 225-member legislature with 196 members elected from 22 multi-seat constituencies and 29 elected byproportional representation.[205] Members are elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament at any time after four and a half years. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws.[206] The president's deputy andhead of government, theprime minister, leads theruling party in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.
The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, Colombo
Judicial: Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of aSupreme Court – the highest and final superior court of record,[206] a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of subordinate courts. The highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural influences.[207] Criminal law is based almost entirely onBritish law. Basic civil law derives fromRoman-Dutch law. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance arecommunal.[208] Because of ancient customary practices and religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), theThesavalamai, andSharia law are followed in special cases.[209] The president appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of thechief justice and two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.
[212] Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist, and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67.[213] Of these, theLanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), established in 1935, is the oldest.[214]
The UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was until recently the largest single political party.[215] It is the only political group which had representation in all parliaments since independence.[215] SLFP was founded byS. W. R. D. Bandaranaike in July 1951.[216] SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in the1956 Parliamentary election.[216] Following the parliamentary election inJuly 1960,Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the prime minister and the world's first electedfemale head of government.[217]
G. G. Ponnambalam, theTamil nationalist counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike,[218] founded theAll Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) in 1944. Objecting to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led byS.J.V. Chelvanayakam broke away in 1949 and formed theIllankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK), also known as the Federal Party, becoming the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next two decades.[219] The Federal Party advocated a more aggressive stance toward the Sinhalese.[220] With the constitutional reforms of 1972, the ACTC and ITAK created the Tamil United Front (laterTamil United Liberation Front). Following a period of turbulence as Tamil militants rose to power in the late 1970s, these Tamil political parties were succeeded in October 2001 by theTamil National Alliance.[220][221]Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, aMarxist–Leninist political party founded byRohana Wijeweera in 1965, serves as a third force in the current political context.[222] It endorses leftist policies which are more radical than the traditionalist leftist politics of the LSSP and theCommunist Party.[220] Founded in 1981, theSri Lanka Muslim Congress is the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.[223]
PresidentMahinda Rajapaksa lost the2015 presidential elections, ending his ten-year presidency. However, his successor as Sri Lankan President,Maithripala Sirisena, decided not to seek re-election in 2019.[224] The Rajapaksa family regained power in November2019 presidential elections when Mahinda's younger brother and former wartime defence chiefGotabaya Rajapaksa won the election, and he was later sworn in as the new president of Sri Lanka.[225][226] Their firm grip of power was consolidated in theparliamentary elections in August 2020. The family's political party,Sri Lanka People's Front (known by its Sinhala initials SLPP), obtained a landslide victory and a clear majority in the parliament. Five members of the Rajapaksa family won seats in the new parliament. Former president Mahinda Rajapaksa became the new prime minister.[227]
Provinces in Sri Lanka have existed since the 19th century, but they had no legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment of the 1978 constitution established provincial councils after several decades of increasing demand for adecentralisation of the government.[233] Each provincial council is an autonomous body not under the authority of any ministry. Some of its functions had been undertaken by central government ministries, departments, corporations, and statutory authorities,[233] but authority over land and police is not as a rule given to provincial councils.[234][235] Between 1989 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form theNorth-East Province.[236][237] Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks for the provinces were handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:
Each district is administered under adistrict secretariat. The districts are further subdivided into 256divisional secretariats, and these to approximately 14,008Grama Niladhari divisions.[241] The districts are known in Sinhala asdisa and in Tamil asmāwaddam. Originally, adisa (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was aduchy, notably Matale and Uva.
There are three other types of local authorities: municipal councils (18), urban councils (13) and pradeshiya sabha, also called pradesha sabhai (256).[242] Local authorities were originally based on feudal counties namedkorale andrata, and were formerly known as "D.R.O. divisions" after the divisional revenue officer.[243] Later, the D.R.O.s became "assistant government agents", and the divisions were known as "A.G.A. divisions". These divisional secretariats are currently administered by a divisional secretary.
The United National Party has traditionally favoured links with the West, while the Sri Lanka Freedom Party has favoured links with the East.[244] Sri Lankan Finance Minister J. R. Jayewardene, together with then Australian Foreign Minister Sir Percy Spencer, proposed the Colombo Plan at the Commonwealth Foreign Minister's Conference held in Colombo in 1950.[245] At theSan Francisco Peace Conference in 1951, while many countries were reluctant, Sri Lanka argued for a freeJapan and refused to accept payment of reparations forWorld War II damage because it believed it would harm Japan's economy.[246] Sri Lanka-China relations started as soon as the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949. The two countries signed an importantRubber-Rice Pact in 1952.[247] Sri Lanka played a vital role at theAsian–African Conference in 1955, which was an important step in the crystallisation of the NAM.[248]
Since independence in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been internal security, crushing three major insurgencies, two byMarxist militants of theJVP and a 26-year-long conflict with theLTTE. The armed forces have been in a continuous mobilised state for the last 30 years.[264][265] The Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged inUnited Nationspeacekeeping operations since the early 1960s, contributing forces to permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping missions inChad,Lebanon, andHaiti.[266]
Sri Lanka is the 100th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.[267]
According to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka'sGDP in terms ofpurchasing power parity is the second highest in the South Asian region in terms ofper capita income. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became aplantation economy famous for its production and export ofcinnamon,rubber, andCeylon tea, which remains a trademark national export.[268] Thedevelopment of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade.[269] From 1948 to 1977, socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised, and awelfare state established. In 1977, thefree market economy was introduced to the country, incorporating privatisation, deregulation, and the promotion of private enterprise.[130]
While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar, and other commodities remain important, industrialisation has increased the importance of food processing, textiles, telecommunications, and finance. The country's main economic sectors are tourism, tea export, clothing, rice production, and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, contributes substantially in foreign exchange.[270]
As of 2020[update], the service sector makes up 59.7% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.2%, and the agriculture sector 8.4%.[271] The private sector accounts for 85% of the economy.[272] China, India and the United States are Sri Lanka's largest trading partners.[273] Economic disparities exist between the provinces with the Western Province contributing 45.1% of the GDP and the Southern Province and the Central Province contributing 10.7% and 10%, respectively.[274] With the end of the war, the Northern Province reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010.[275]
Sri Lanka's most widely known export,Ceylon tea, whichISO considers the cleanest tea in the world in terms of pesticide residues. Sri Lanka is also the world's 2nd largest exporter of tea.[276]
The per capita income of Sri Lanka doubled from 2005 to 2011.[277] During the same period, poverty dropped from 15.2% to 7.6%, unemployment rate dropped from 7.2% to 4.9%,market capitalisation of theColombo Stock Exchange quadrupled, and thebudget deficit doubled.[270] 99% of the households in Sri Lanka are electrified; 93.2% of the population have access to safe drinking water; and 53.1% have access to pipe-borne water.[271] Income inequality has also dropped in recent years, indicated by aGini coefficient of 0.36 in 2010.[278]
The 2011Global Competitiveness Report, published by theWorld Economic Forum, described Sri Lanka's economy as transitioning from the factor-driven stage to the efficiency-driven stage and that it ranked 52nd in global competitiveness.[279] Also, out of the 142 countries surveyed, Sri Lanka ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32nd in business sophistication, 42nd in innovation, and 41st in goods market efficiency. In 2016, Sri Lanka ranked 5th in theWorld Giving Index, registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society.[280] In 2010,The New York Times placed Sri Lanka at the top of its list of 31 places to visit.[281]S&P Dow Jones Indices classifies Sri Lanka as afrontier market as of 2018.[282]Sri Lanka ranks well above other South Asian countries in theHuman Development Index (HDI) with an index of 0.750.
By 2016, the country's debt soared as it was developing its infrastructure to the point of near bankruptcy which required a bailout from theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF).[283] The IMF had agreed to provide a US$1.5 billion bailout loan in April 2016 after Sri Lanka provided a set of criteria intended to improve its economy. By the fourth quarter of 2016, the debt was estimated to be $64.9 billion. Additional debt had been incurred in the past by state-owned organisations and this was said to be at least $9.5 billion. Since early 2015, domestic debt increased by 12% and external debt by 25%.[284] In November 2016, the IMF reported that the initial disbursement was larger than US$150 million originally planned, a full US$162.6 million (SDR 119.894 million). The agency's evaluation for the first tranche was cautiously optimistic about the future. Under the program, the Sri Lankan government implemented a new Inland Revenue Act and an automatic fuel pricing formula which was noted by the IMF in its fourth review. In 2018 China agreed to bail out Sri Lanka with a loan of $1.25 billion to deal with foreign debt repayment spikes in 2019 to 2021.[285][286][287]
In September 2021, Sri Lanka declared a majoreconomic crisis.[288] The Chief of its Central Bank has stepped down amid the crisis.[289] The Parliament has declared emergency regulations due to the crisis, seeking to ban "food hoarding".[290][291]
Tourism, which provided the economy with an input of foreign currency, has significantly declined as a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.[292]
Colombo Port is the largest and busiest port in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka has an extensive road network for inland transportation. With more than 100,000 km (62,000 mi) of paved roads,[293] it has one of the highest road densities in the world (1.5 km or 0.93 mi of paved roads per every 1 km2 or 0.39 sq mi of land). The road network consists of 35A-Grade highways andfourcontrolled-access highways.[294][295] A and B grade roads are national (arterial) highways administered by Road Development Authority.[296] C and D grade roads are provincial roads coming under the purview of the Provincial Road Development Authority of the respective province. The other roads are local roads falling under local government authorities.
In June 2021, Sri Lanka imposed a nationwide ban on inorganic fertilisers and pesticides. The program was welcomed by its advisorVandana Shiva,[298] but ignored critical voices from scientific and farming community who warned about possible collapse of farming,[299][300][301][302][303] including financial crisis due to devaluation of national currency pivoted around tea industry.[299] The situation in the tea industry was described as critical, with farming under the organic program being described as ten times more expensive and producing half of the yield by the farmers.[304] In September 2021 the government declared an economic emergency, as the situation was further aggravated by falling national currency exchange rate, inflation rising as a result of high food prices, and pandemic restrictions in tourism which further decreased country's income.[288]
In November 2021, Sri Lanka abandoned its plan to become the world's first organic farming nation following rising food prices and weeks of protests against the plan.[305] As of December 2021, the damage to agricultural production was already done, with prices having risen substantially for vegetables in Sri Lanka, and time needed to recover from the crisis. The ban on fertiliser has been lifted for certain crops, but the price of urea has risen internationally due to the price for oil and gas.[292] Jeevika Weerahewa, a senior lecturer at theUniversity of Peradeniya, predicted that the ban would reduce the paddy harvest in 2022 by an unprecedented 50%.[306]
Sri Lanka's tourism industry is recovering, with tourism revenue reaching over $1.5 billion in the first half of 2024, a 78% increase year-on-year. Tourist arrivals also increased to 1.01 million, up 62% from the same period in 2023. This growth is attributed to the government's proactive measures and improvements fromSriLankan Airlines.[307] The government launched a global tourism marketing campaign and offered visa-free entry for visitors from several countries to encourage tourism. A free tourist visa program was introduced for visitors from selected countries, allowing them to stay for up to 30 days.[307]
Sri Lanka has roughly 22,156,000 people and an annual population growth rate of 0.5%. Thebirth rate is 13.8 births per 1,000 people, and thedeath rate is 6.0 deaths per 1,000 people.[271] Population density is highest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around the capital.Sinhalese constitute the largest ethnic group in the country, with 74.8% of the total population.[308]Sri Lankan Tamils are the second major ethnic group in the island, with a percentage of 11.2%.Moors comprise 9.2%. There are also small ethnic groups such as theBurghers (of mixed European descent) andMalays from Southeast Asia. Moreover, there is a small population ofVedda people who are believed to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island.[309]
Largest cities
Largest cities or towns in Sri Lanka
(2012 Department of Census and Statistics enumeration)[310]
Sinhala andTamil are the twoofficial languages.[311] The constitution definesEnglish as the link language. English is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of theBurgher community speak variant forms ofPortuguese Creole and Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form ofCreoleMalay that is unique to the island.[312]
Buddhism is the largest and is considered as an "Official religion" of Sri Lanka under Chapter II, Article 9, "The Republic of Sri Lanka shall give to Buddhism the foremost place and accordingly it shall be the duty of the State to protect and foster the Buddha Sasana".[315][316]Buddhism is practised by 70.2% of the Sri Lankan population with most being predominantly fromTheravada school of thought.[317] Most Buddhists are of the Sinhalese ethnic group with minority Tamils. Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE byMahinda Maurya.[317] A sapling of theBodhi Tree under whichthe Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka during the same time. ThePāli Canon (Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE.[318] Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominantly Buddhist nation.[317] During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma.[318]
AlthoughHindus in Sri Lanka form a religious minority, Hinduism has been present in Sri Lanka at least since the 2nd century BCE.[319] Hinduism was the dominant religion in Sri Lanka before the arrival of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE. Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka by Mahinda, the son of Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of KingDevanampiya Tissa;[320] the Sinhalese embraced Buddhism and Tamils remain Hindus in Sri Lanka. However, it was activity from across thePalk Strait that truly set the scene forHinduism's survival in Sri Lanka.Shaivism (devotional worship of Lord Shiva) was the dominant branch practised by the Tamil peoples, thus most of the traditionalHindu temple architecture andphilosophy of Sri Lanka drew heavily from this particular strand ofHinduism. Thirugnanasambanthar mentioned the names of several Sri Lankan Hindu temples in his works.[321]
Islam is the third most prevalent religion in the country, having first been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries, starting around the mid or late 7th century CE. Most followers on the island today areSunni who follow theShafi'i school[322] and are believed to be descendants of Arab traders and the local women whom they married.[323]
Christianity reached the country at least as early as the fifth century (and possibly in the first),[324] gaining a wider foothold through Western colonists who began to arrive early in the 16th century.[325] Around 7.4% of the Sri Lankan population are Christians, of whom 82% areRoman Catholics who trace their religious heritage directly to the Portuguese. Tamil Catholics attribute their religious heritage toSt. Francis Xavier as well as Portuguese missionaries. The remaining Christians are evenly split between theAnglican Church of Ceylon and otherProtestant denominations.[326]
There is also a small population ofZoroastrian immigrants from India (Parsis) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule.[327] This community has steadily dwindled in recent years.[328]
Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. TheBuddhist majority observePoya Days each month according to theLunar calendar, andHindus andMuslims also observe their own holidays. In a 2008Gallup poll, Sri Lanka was ranked the third most religious country in the world, with 99% of Sri Lankans saying religion was an important part of their daily life.[329]
Sri Lankans have alife expectancy of 75.5 years at birth, which is 10% higher than the world average.[271][270] The infant mortality rate stands at 8.5 per 1,000 births and the maternal mortality rate at 0.39 per 1,000 births, which is on par with figures from developed countries. The universal "pro-poor"[330] health care system adopted by the country has contributed much towards these figures.[331] Sri Lanka ranks first among southeast Asian countries with respect to deaths by suicide, with 33 deaths per 100,000 persons. According to the Department of Census and Statistics, poverty, destructive pastimes, and inability to cope with stressful situations are the main causes behind the high suicide rates.[332]On 8 July 2020, theWorld Health Organization declared that Sri Lanka had successfully eliminatedrubella andmeasles ahead of their 2023 target.[333]
With aliteracy rate of 92.9%,[271] Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations.[334] Its youth literacy rate stands at 98.8%,[335] computer literacy rate at 35%,[336] and primary school enrollment rate at over 99%.[337] An education system which dictates nine years ofcompulsory schooling for every child is in place.
Thefree education system established in 1945[338] is a result of the initiative ofC. W. W. Kannangara and A. Ratnayake.[339][340] It is one of the few countries in the world that provide universal free education from primary to tertiary stage.[341] Kannangara led the establishment of theMadhya Vidyalayas (central schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural children.[336] In 1942, a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people. However, in the 1980s changes to this system separated the administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. Thus the elitenational schools are controlled directly by theministry of education and the provincial schools by the provincial government. Sri Lanka has approximately 10,155 government schools, 120 private schools and 802pirivenas.[271]
Sri Lanka has 17 public universities.[342][343] A lack of responsiveness of the education system to labour market requirements, disparities in access to quality education, lack of an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education remain major challenges for the education sector.[344] A number of private, degree awarding institutions have emerged in recent times to fill in these gaps, yet the participation at tertiary level education remains at 5.1%.[345] Sri Lanka was ranked 89th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[346]
TheSri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (formerlyRadio Ceylon) is the oldest-running radio station in Asia,[347] established in 1923 byEdward Harper just three years after broadcasting began in Europe.[347] The station broadcasts services in Sinhala, Tamil, English and Hindi. Since the 1980s, many private radio stations have also been introduced. Broadcast television was introduced in 1979 when theIndependent Television Network was launched. Initially, all television stations were state-controlled, but private television networks began broadcasting in 1992.[348]
As of 2020[update], 192 newspapers (122 Sinhala, 24 Tamil, 43 English, 3 multilingual) are published and 25 TV stations and 58 radio stations are in operation.[271] In recent years,freedom of the press in Sri Lanka has been alleged by media freedom groups to be amongst thepoorest in democratic countries.[349] Alleged abuse of a newspaper editor by a senior government minister[350] achieved international notoriety because of the unsolved murder of the editor's predecessor,Lasantha Wickrematunge,[351] who had been a critic of the government and had presaged his own death in a posthumously published article.[352]
TheUN Human Rights Council has documentedover 12,000 named individuals who have disappeared after detention by security forces in Sri Lanka, the second-highest figure in the world since the Working Group came into being in 1980.[360] The Sri Lankan government confirmed that 6,445 of these died. Allegations of human rights abuses have not ended with the close of the ethnic conflict.[361]
UN Human Rights CommissionerNavanethem Pillay visited Sri Lanka in May 2013. After her visit, she said: "The war may have ended [in Sri Lanka], but in the meantime, democracy has been undermined and the rule of law eroded." Pillay spoke about the military's increasing involvement in civilian life and reports of militaryland grabbing. She also said that, while in Sri Lanka, she had been allowed to go wherever she wanted, but that Sri Lankans who came to meet her were harassed and intimidated by security forces.[362][363]
In 2012, the UK charityFreedom from Torture reported that it had received 233 referrals of torture survivors from Sri Lanka for clinical treatment or other services provided by the charity. In the same year, the group publishedOut of the Silence, which documents evidence of torture in Sri Lanka and demonstrates that the practice has continued long after the end of the civil war in 2009.[364] On 29 July 2020,Human Rights Watch said that the Sri Lanka government has targeted lawyers, human rights defenders, and journalists to suppress criticism against the government.[365]
Theculture of Sri Lanka is influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism.[366] Sri Lanka is the home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in Jaffna). Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese people since then, and the early mixing rendered the two ethnic groups almost physically indistinguishable.[367] Ancient Sri Lanka is marked for its genius inhydraulic engineering andarchitecture. The British colonial culture has also influenced the locals. The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country's long life expectancy, advanced health standards, and high literacy rate.[368]
Dishes include rice and curry,pittu,kiribath, wholemealroti,string hoppers,watalappam (a rich pudding of Malay origin made withcoconut milk, jaggery, cashews, eggs, and spices including cinnamon and nutmeg),kottu, andappam.[369]Jackfruit may sometimes replace rice. Traditionally food is served on aplantain leaf or lotus leaf. Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes, while Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional dishes such aslamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf),breudher (Dutch holiday biscuit), andBolo fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).[citation needed]
In April, Sri Lankans celebrate theBuddhist andHindu new year festivals.[370]Esala Perahera is a symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and decorated elephants held in Kandy in July and August.[371] Fire dances, whip dances, Kandyan dances and various other cultural dances are integral parts of the festival. Christians celebrateChristmas on 25 December to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ andEaster to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus. Tamils celebrateThai Pongal andMaha Shivaratri, and Muslims celebrateHajj andRamadan.
The movieKadawunu Poronduwa (The Broken Promise), produced byS. M. Nayagam of Chitra Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947.Ranmuthu Duwa (Island of Treasures) marked the transition of cinema fromblack-and-white to colour. In recent years, movies have featured subjects such as family melodrama, social transformation and the years of conflict between the military and the LTTE.[372] The Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar toBollywood movies. In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all-time high but has been in a steady decline since then.[373]
An influential filmmaker isLester James Peiris, who has directed a number of movies which led to global acclaim, includingRekava (Line of Destiny, 1956),Gamperaliya (The Changing Village, 1964),Nidhanaya (The Treasure, 1970) andGolu Hadawatha (Cold Heart, 1968).[374] Sri Lankan-Canadian poetRienzi Crusz, is the subject of a documentary on his life in Sri Lanka. His work is published in Sinhala and English. Naturalised CanadianMichael Ondaatje is well known for his English-language novels and three films.[citation needed]
The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such asKolam,Sokari andNadagam.[375] Traditional music instruments such asBéra,Thammátama,Daŭla andRăbān were performed at these dramas. The first music album,Nurthi, recorded in 1903, was released through Radio Ceylon. Songwriters likeMahagama Sekara andAnanda Samarakoon and musicians such asW. D. Amaradeva,Victor Ratnayake,Nanda Malini andClarence Wijewardene have contributed much towards the progression of Sri Lankan music.[376]Baila music originated amongKaffirs or the Afro-Sinhalese community.[377]
A Low Country drummer playing the traditionalYak Béra
There are three main styles of Sri Lankan classical dance. They are, theKandyan dances, low country dances andSabaragamuwa dances. Of these, the Kandyan style is most prominent. It is a sophisticated form of dance[378] that consists of five sub-categories:Ves dance,Naiyandi dance,Udekki dance,Pantheru dance and18 Vannam.[379] An elaborate headdress is worn by the male dancers, and a drum calledGeta Béraya is used to assist the dancers to keep on rhythm.[380]
The history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd century BCE.[381] The earliest mention about the art of painting on Mahāvaṃsa, is to the drawing of a palace on cloth usingcinnabar in the 2nd century BCE. The chronicles have a description of various paintings in relic chambers of Buddhist stupas and in monastic residences.
Theatre came to the country when aParsi theatre company fromMumbai introducedNurti, a blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions to the Colombo audience in the 19th century.[379] The golden age of Sri Lankan drama and theatre began with the staging ofManame, a play written byEdiriweera Sarachchandra in 1956.[382] It was followed by a series of popular dramas likeSinhabāhu,Pabāvatī,Mahāsāra,Muudu Puththu andSubha saha Yasa.
Sri Lankan literature spans at least two millennia and is heir to theAryan literary tradition as embodied in the hymns of theRigveda.[383] ThePāli Canon, the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, was written down in Sri Lanka during theFourth Buddhist council, at the Alulena cave temple,Kegalle, as early as 29 BCE.[384] Chronicles such as theMahāvaṃsa, written in the 6th century, provide vivid descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasties. According to the German philosopherWilhelm Geiger, the chronicles are based on SinhalaAtthakatha (commentary).[383] The oldest surviving prose work is theDhampiya-Atuva-Getapadaya, compiled in the 9th century CE.[383] The greatest literary feats of medieval Sri Lanka includeSandesha Kāvya (poetic messages) such asGirā Sandeshaya (parrot message),Hansa Sandeshaya (swan message) andSalalihini Sandeshaya (myna message). Poetry includingKavsilumina,Kavya-Sekharaya (Diadem of Poetry) and proses such asSaddharma-Ratnāvaliya,Amāvatura (Flood of Nectar) andPujāvaliya are also notable works of this period, which is considered to be the golden age of Sri Lankan literature.[383] The first modern-day novel,Meena by Simon de Silva appeared in 1905[379] and was followed by several revolutionary literary works.Martin Wickramasinghe, the author ofMadol Doova is considered the iconic figure of Sri Lankan literature.[385]
^Many names have been used to refer to the island, with Ceylon being used post-independence and still in use in some cases. For other names, seeNames of Sri Lanka.
^British Prime Minister Winston Churchill described the moment a Japanese fleet prepared to invade Sri Lanka as "the most dangerous and distressing moment of the entire conflict". –Commonwealth Air Training Program Museum,The Saviour of CeylonArchived 22 October 2007 at theWayback Machine
^Deraniyagala, Siran U."Pre and Protohistoric settlement in Sri Lanka".International Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences. XIII U. I. S. P. P. Congress Proceedings – Forli, 8–14 September 1996.Archived from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved15 July 2014.
^Kennedy, Kenneth A.R., Disotell, T.W., Roertgen, J., Chiment, J., Sherry, J.Ancient Ceylon 6: Biological anthropology of upper Pleistocene hominids from Sri Lanka: Batadomba Lena and Beli Lena caves. pp. 165–265.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Bokay, Mon (1966). "Relations between Ceylon and Burma in the 11th Century AD".Artibus Asiae. Supplementum.23. Artibus Asiae Publishers:93–95.doi:10.2307/1522637.ISSN1423-0526.JSTOR1522637.
^Herath, R. B. (2002).Sri Lankan Ethnic Crisis: Towards a Resolution. Trafford Publishing. p. 19.ISBN978-1-55369-793-0.Archived from the original on 6 January 2024. Retrieved24 July 2018.Parakramabahu 1 further extended the system to the highest resplendent peak of hydraulic civilization of the country's history.
^Beveridge, H. (1894)."The Site of Karna Suvarna".Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.62: 324.Archived from the original on 6 January 2024. Retrieved29 September 2020 – via Google Books.His [Parakramabahu's] reign is described by Tumour as having been the most martial, enterprising, and glorious in Singhalese history.
^India's interaction with Southeast Asia, by Govind Chandra Pande p.286
^Craig J. Reynolds (2019).Power, Protection and Magic in Thailand: The Cosmos of a Southern Policeman. ANU Press. pp. 74–75.
^"Astronesians Historical and Comparative Perspectives" Page 146Archived 24 May 2022 at theWayback Machine "Annual trade between China and India through the Malacca Straits had opened by about 200 BCE. Perhaps by that time Austronesian sailors were regularly carrying cloves and cinnamon to India and Sri Lanka, and perhaps even as far as the coast of Africa in boats with outriggers. Certainly they have left numerous traces in canoe design, rigs, outriggers and fishing techniques, and a mention in Greek literature (Christie 1957)."
^Bosma, U. (2008)."1".Being "Dutch" in the Indies: a history of creolisation and empire, 1500–1920. University of Michigan.ISBN978-0-89680-261-2.Archived from the original on 6 January 2024. Retrieved20 June 2015.
^Gunawardene, N. R.; Daniels, A. E. D.; Gunatilleke, I. A. U. N.; Gunatilleke, C. V. S.; Karunakaran, P. V.; Nayak, K.; Prasad, S.; Puyravaud, P.; Ramesh, B. R.; Subramanian, K. A; Vasanthy, G. (10 December 2007)."A brief overview of the Western Ghats—Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot"(PDF).Current Science.93 (11):1567–1572.Archived(PDF) from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved16 November 2020.
^Mahindapala, R. (2002). "Sri Lanka". In Carew-Reid, J. (ed.).Biodiversity Planning in Asia(PDF). Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. p. 451.ISBN2-8317-0643-2.Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 April 2021. Retrieved17 November 2020.
^Society of Jesus in India (1946).New review, Volume 23. India: Macmillan and co. ltd. p. 78.Archived from the original on 6 January 2024. Retrieved20 June 2015.
^"CAF world giving index 2016"(PDF).cafonline.org. Charities aid foundation.Archived(PDF) from the original on 25 October 2016. Retrieved18 August 2019.
^Shaffer, Leslie (2 May 2016)."Why Sri Lanka's economic outlook is looking less rosy". CNBC.Archived from the original on 3 May 2016. Retrieved14 January 2017.While the government is aiming to raise its low revenue collection, partly through an increase in the value-added tax rate ... the country has a spotty record on tax collection.
^ab"Opinion | The ban on chemical fertilizer and the way forward of Sri Lankan Tea Industry".Agrigate Global.Archived from the original on 5 September 2021. Retrieved5 September 2021.By diverting the attention of policymakers towards pointless nonscientific arguments instead of promoting such integrated management systems and high technological fertilizer production, will be only a time-wasting effort and meanwhile, the global demand for Ceylon Tea will generate diminishing returns. At present, there are about 500,000 direct beneficiaries from the tea industry and about 600 factories are operating around the country. In general, the livelihood of around 3 million people is directly and indirectly woven around the domestic tea industry. The researchers and the experienced growers have predicted that a 50 percent reduction in the yield has to be anticipated with the ban of chemical fertilizer. The negative implication of this yield reduction is such that there is a risk of collapsing the banking sector which is centralized around the tea industry in the major tea growing areas including Ratnapura, Galle, Matara, Kaluthara, and Kegalle.
^Claveyrolas, Mathieu; Goreau-Ponceaud, Anthony; Madavan, Delon; Meyer, Eric; Trouillet, Pierre-yves (2018)."Hindus and Others: A Sri Lankan Perspective (Introduction)".The South Asianist Journal.6 (1). University of Edinburg: 4. Retrieved4 July 2022.
^Asian Religions in British Columbia, UBC Press 2011, p. 125.
^United Nations, Human Rights Council Nineteenth session."Report of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances"(PDF). UN. pp. 3, 113. Retrieved24 November 2012.'The original mandate derives from Commission on Human Rights resolution 20 (XXXVI) of 29 February 1980','Since its establishment, the Working Group has transmitted 12,460 cases to the Government; of those, 40 cases have been clarified on the basis of information provided by the source, 6,535 cases have been clarified on the basis of information provided by the Government, 214 cases were found to be duplications and were therefore deleted, and 5,671 remain outstanding.'
.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.PNG)
.jpg)
![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_Mahinda_Rajapaksa_Theatre.JPG)
.jpg)
.svg)
