Anaition explaining the name of Cephallenia and reinforcing its cultural connections withAthens associates the island with the mythological figure ofCephalus, who helpedAmphitryon ofMycenae in a war against theTaphians andTeleboans.[4] He was rewarded with the island ofSame, which thereafter came to be known as Cephallenia.
Kefalonia has also been suggested as theHomeric Ithaca, the home ofOdysseus, rather thanthe smaller island bearing this name today. Robert Bittlestone, in his bookOdysseus Unbound, has suggested thatPaliki, now a peninsula of Cephalonia, was a separate island during the lateBronze Age, and it may be this which Homer was referring to when he described Ithaca. A project which started in the summer of 2007 and lasted three years has examined this possibility.[5]
Kefalonia is alsoreferenced in relation to the goddessBritomartis, as the location where she is said to have 'received divine honours from the inhabitants under the name ofLaphria'.
From at least the 6th century BC, the island was dominated by four city-states (poleis):Pale (modern Lixouri),Cranii (mod. Argostoli),Same (mod. Sami) andPronnoi.[6] All four minted their own coins, as well as building monumental temples and fortifications, both in the cities themselves and in the surrounding countryside. Ancient writers generally paid little attention to the island throughout antiquity, but there are some notable references, and it seems that the Kefalonian cities were involved in developments and events across the wider Greek world. A certainMelampous, from Kefalonia, won the Lyre and Song contest at thePythian Games atDelphi in 582 BC.[7] 200 hoplites from Pale fought alongside other Greeks against the Persians in the decisive battle atPlataea,[8] and all four Kefalonian cities allied withAthens during thePeloponnesian War.[9] The island was of strategic value to the Athenians, as it lies close to the entry to the Bay of Corinth. The Corinthians attempted, unsuccessfully, to attack Krane in 431 BC, and, 10 years later, Athens settled a group of Spartan deserters on the island.[10] Finally, a group of Kefalonian soldiers were recruited by the Athenian generalDemosthenes as part of the ill-fatedSicilian Expedition in 415-413 BC.[11]
The Kefalonian cities retained close ties with Athens after the end of the Peloponnesian War, despite the Spartan victory. Athenian influence, including heavy direct taxation in the 4th century BC, may have been a stimulus for a new planned and fortified town at Same, which increasingly seems to have dominated the smallerpolis of Pronnoi.[6]
The Kefalonian cities once again contributed troops and ships to broader Greek military events, this timeAlexander the Great's invasion and conquest of thePersian Empire. In the subsequent centuries, the island was drawn ever close to theAetolian League.[6] As a result, it was invaded by the Macedonian kingPhilip V in 218 BC[12] and then by theRoman republic in 189 BC, who conquered Same after a protracted siege.[13] From then onwards, Kefalonia lost its strategic importance, and so declined in social and economic terms. Archaeologically, the Roman period is dominated by lavish villas on the coasts, contrasted with little activity in the old towns.[6] The ancient links to Athens seem to have remained strong, as the emperorHadrian gifted the island to the city during his reign.[14]
Following the loss of the bulk of Italy, and the expansion of theMuslims into the Western Mediterranean, the island became a strategically important base of operations for theByzantine Empire in the area, blocking Muslim raids into theAdriatic and serving as a bridge for expeditions in Italy.[15] Already from the 8th century, it was the centre of the namesaketheme ofCephallenia.[15] At the same time, the capital was moved to theCastle of Saint George, a more well-protected site in the island's interior.[15]Mardaites were resettled in Cephalonia to serve as marines, and political prisoners were sometimes exiled there.[15]
Because of the liberal situation on the island, the Venetian governor Marc'Antonio Giustiniani (1516–1571) printedHebrew books and exported them to the whole eastern Mediterranean. In 1596 the Venetians built theAssos Castle, one of Cephalonia's main tourist attractions today. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, the island was one of the largest exporters ofcurrants in the world withZakynthos, and owned a large shipping fleet, even commissioning ships from the Danzig shipyard. Its towns and villages were mostly built high on hilltops, to prevent attacks from raiding parties of pirates that sailed theIonian Sea during the 1820s.
The sea mills at the bay of Argostoli (1849) were a natural curiosity in the 19th century. Mount Ainos in the background.The central square of Lixouri, 1910.
Venice was conquered by France in 1797 and Cephalonia, along with the other Ionian Islands, became part of theFrench département ofIthaque.
In the following year, 1798, the French were forced to yield the Ionian Islands to a combined Russian and Turkish fleet. From 1799 to 1807, Cephalonia was part of theSeptinsular Republic, nominally under the sovereignty of theOttoman Empire, but protected byRussia.
By theTreaty of Tilsit in 1807, the Ionian Islands were ceded back to France, which remained in control of Cephalonia until 1809. In 1809, theBritish established ablockade on the Ionian Islands as part of their conflict with France, and in September of that year they hoisted theUnion Flag above the castle of Zakynthos. Cephalonia and Ithaca soon surrendered, and the British installed provisional governments. TheTreaty of Paris in 1815 recognised theUnited States of the Ionian Islands and decreed that it become a British protectorate. ColonelCharles Philippe de Bosset became provisional governor between 1810 and 1814. During this period he was credited with achieving many public works, including theDrapano Bridge, which later became known as the De Bosset Bridge, over the bay ofArgostoli.
A few years laterGreek nationalist groups started to form. Although their energy in the early years was directed to supporting theGreeks in therevolution against the Ottoman Empire, it soon started to turn towards the British. By 1848, calls forenosis with Greece were gaining strength and there were rebellions against British rule inArgostoli andLixouri, which led to some relaxation in the laws and to freedom of the press. Union with Greece was now a declared aim, and in 1849, as revolution was sweeping across Europe, a growing restlessness resulted in another rebellion against the British state, which was suppressed by the island's governor,Sir Henry George Ward when 21 people were hanged, several were shot and hundreds were flogged by the cat-o-nine-tails.[17]
Cephalonia, along with the other islands, were transferred to Greece in 1864 as a gesture of goodwill when the British-supported Prince William of Denmark becameKing George the First of the Hellenes.
InWorld War II, the island was occupied byAxis forces. Until late 1943, the occupying force was predominantly Italian, the33rd Infantry DivisionAcqui plus Navy personnel totalled 12,000 men, but about 2,000 troops fromGermany were also present. The island was largely spared the fighting, until thearmistice with Italy concluded by theAllies in September 1943. Confusion followed on the island, as the Italians were hoping to return home, but German forces did not want the Italians' munitions to be used eventually against them; Italian forces were hesitant to turn over weapons for the same reason. As German reinforcements headed to the island the Italians dug in and, eventually, after a referendum among the soldiers as to surrender or battle, they fought against the new German invasion.[citation needed] The fighting came to a head at the siege of Argostoli, where the Italians held out. Ultimately the Germans prevailed, taking full control of the island.
A series of four earthquakes hit the island in August 1953, and caused major destruction, with virtually every house on the island destroyed. The third and most destructive of the quakes took place on 12 August 1953 at 09:24 UTC (11:24local time), with a magnitude of 6.8 on theMoment magnitude scale. Itsepicentre was directly south of the southern tip of Cephalonia, and caused the entire island to be raised 60 cm (24 in) higher, where it remains, with evidence in water marks on rocks around the coastline.
The1953 Ionian earthquake disaster caused huge destruction, with only regions in the north escaping the heaviest tremors and houses there remaining intact. Damage was estimated to run into tens of millions of dollars, equivalent to billions ofdrachmas, but the real damage to the economy occurred when residents left the island. The majority of the population left the island soon after, seeking a new life elsewhere.
Theforest fire of the 1990s caused damage to the island's forests and bushes, especially a small scar north ofTroianata, and a large area of damage extending fromKateleios north to west ofTzanata, ruining about 30 square kilometres (12 sq mi) of forest and bushes and resulting in the loss of some properties. The forest fire scar was visible for some years.
In mid-November 2003, an earthquake measuring 5.3 on theRichter magnitude scale caused minor damage to business, residential property, and other buildings in and near Argostoli. The damage was around€1,000,000.
On the morning of 20 September 2005, an early-morning earthquake shook the south-western part of the island, especially near Lixouri and nearby villages. The earthquake measured 4.9 on the Richter magnitude scale, and its epicentre was located off the island at sea. Service vehicles took care of the area, and no damage was reported. From 24 to 26 January 2006, a major snowstorm blanketed the entire island, causing extensive blackouts. The island was recently struck yet again by another forest fire in the south of the island, beginning of 18 July 2007 during an unusual heatwave, and spreading slowly. Firefighters along with helicopters and planes battled the blaze for some days and the spectacle frightened residents on that area of the island.
In 2011, the eight former municipalities of the island lost their independence to form one united municipality. After losing its role as the capital of the island in the 19th century, Lixouri lost also its role as a seat of a municipality after 500 years. TheTechnological Educational Institute of the Ionian Islands closed one faculty in Lixouri and one in Argostoli.
In January 2014, an earthquake measuring 5.9 on theRichter magnitude scale left at least seven injured. There are reports of minor injuries and some damage to property," said the Foreign Office, on its website. "The airport remains operational but there may be some disruption to port services."
Cephalonia is extremely interesting archaeologically; finds go back to 40,000 BP. Without doubt, the most important era for the island is theMycenaean era, from approximately 1500 BC to 1100 BC. The archaeological museum in Cephalonia's capital, although small, is of great importance due to its exhibits from this era.
The most important archaeological discovery in Cephalonia (and indeed in Greece) of recent decades is that, in 1991, of the MycenaeanTholos tomb at the outskirts ofTzanata, nearPoros in southeastern Cephalonia (former Municipality of Elios-Pronni) in a setting ofolive trees, cypresses, and oaks. The tomb was erected around 1300 BC; kings and highly ranked officials were buried insuch tombs during the Mycenaean period. It is the largest tholos tomb yet found in northwestern Greece, and was excavated by archaeologist Lazaros Kolonas. The size of the tomb, the nature of the burial offerings found there, and its well-chosen position point to the existence of an important Mycenaean town in the vicinity.
In late 2006, a Roman grave complex was uncovered as the foundation of a new hotel was being excavated inFiskardo. The remains date to the period between the 2nd century BC and the 4th century AD. Archaeologists described it as the most important find of its kind in the Ionian Islands. Inside the complex, five burial sites were found, including a large vaulted tomb and a stone coffin, along with gold earrings and rings, gold leaves that may have been attached to ceremonial clothing, glass and ceramic pots, bronze artefacts decorated with masks, a bronze lock and bronze coins. The tomb had escaped the attention ofgrave robbers and remained undisturbed for thousands of years. When the tomb was opened the stone door easily swung on its stone hinges. ARoman theatre was discovered very near the tomb, so well preserved that the metal joints between the seats were still intact.
A dissertation published in 1987 claims thatPaul the Apostle, on his way from Palestine to Rome in 59 AD, was shipwrecked and confined for three months not on Malta but on Cephalonia.[19][20]
In theancient period, the people lived in four cities on the island.Cranii,Sami(or Samos),Pale andPronnoi(Proni) formed a federation called "tetrapolis".[21]
In more recent times, the population reached 70,000, in 1896, but declined gradually in the 20th century. The great1953 Ionian earthquake forced many people to leave the island.[22] Many of those who left moved to Patras or Athens, or emigrated to America and Australia, following relatives who had left the island decades before. In the same period people from poorer areas of Greece such as Epirus and Thrace came to the island. The population has hovered between 35,000 and 42,000 since then; in the 2011 census, it was 35,801.[23]
Most of the indigenous people of Cephalonia have surnames ending in "-atos", such as the Alexatos (Greek: Αλεξάτος) families, and almost every settlement on the island has a name ending in "-ata", such asMetaxata,Chavriata,Frangata,Lourdata, Favata, Delaportata and others.
In 1222 the Frankish Crusaders established the Diocese ofKefalonia–Zakynthos (Cefalonia–Zante in Curiate Italian), which survived their rule and even the Turks. In 1919, the residential see was suppressed but immediately transformed into atitular bishopric of Kefalonia (Cefalonia in Italian). The territory and title were merged into the MetropolitanArchdiocese of Corfu–Zakynthos–Kefalonia. In 1921, this was also suppressed, never having had an incumbent.
The main island of the regional unit is Cephalonia and has a size of 773 km2 (298 sq mi), with a population density of 55 people per square kilometre (140 people/sq mi). The town ofArgostoli has one-third of the island's inhabitants.Lixouri is the second major settlement, and the two towns together account for almost two-thirds of the prefecture's population.
Cephalonia lies in the heart of anearthquake zone, and dozens of minor, unrecorded tremors occur each year. In 1953, amassive earthquake destroyed almost all of the settlements on the island, leaving onlyFiskardo in the north untouched.
The island has a rich biodiversity, with a substantial number of endemic and rare species. Some areas have been declared a site in the European Union'sNatura 2000 network.
The island's highest mountain isMount Ainos, with an elevation of 1628 meters; to the west-northwest are thePaliki mountains, whereLixouri is found, with other mountains includingGeraneia (Gerania) andAgia Dynati. The top of Mount Ainos is covered withfir trees and is a natural park.
Forestry is rare on the island; however its timber output is one of the highest in the Ionian islands, although lower than that of Elia in the Peloponnese.Forest fires were common during the 1990s and the early 2000s, and still pose a major threat to the population.
Most of the Ainos mountain range is designated as aNational Park[31] and is covered with the rare species ofGreek fir (Abies cephalonica) and black pine (Pinus nigra).[32]
Cephalonia is well known for its endangeredloggerhead turtle population, also known as the Caretta caretta turtle, which nests on many of the beaches along the south coast of the island. The turtles can also be seen in the waters ofArgostoli harbour, inKoutavos Lagoon, while walking onDe Bosset Bridge. A small population of the endangeredMediterranean monk seal,Monachus monachus, also lives around the island's coast, especially on parts of the coast which are inaccessible to humans due to the terrain. Caves on these parts of the coast offer ideal locations for the seals to give birth to their pups and nurse them through the first months of their lives. The most famous breeding ground in Cephalonia is a cave on Foki beach, located on the north-east coast nearFiskardo.
Cephalonia has hot, sunny summers and mild rainy winters. According to theKöppen climate classification system, it has a hot-summerMediterranean climate (Csa). During winter it can occasionally snow on the mountain peaks of the island's mountains. The winter months can experience up to 156 mm of rainfall, resulting in high levels of humidity on the island. Winter temperature on Kefalonia average at 14-15 °C during the day and 8-9 °C during the night. During the summer months there is usually little to no rainfall. Temperatures range from nearly 30 °C during the day to around 21 °C at night.
The primary agricultural occupations areanimal breeding andolive growing, with the remainder largely composed of grain and vegetables. Most vegetable production takes place on the plains, which cover less than 15% of the island, most of which is rugged and mountainous, suitable only forgoats. Less than a quarter of the island's land isarable.
Until the 1970s, most Cephalonians lived in rural areas, while today, two-thirds of the population lives in urban areas, with the other third in rural towns and villages close to farmland.
The island has a longwinemaking tradition and is home to thedry, white lemony wines made from theRobola grape.[36]
Olive oil production is a major component of Cephalonia's economy. Until the 18th century, the quantity ofolive oil produced on the island just covered the needs of the residents. However, the pressure ofVenetian conquerors' for olive plantation, especially after the loss ofPeloponnese andCrete, resulted in increasing the production to such a degree that the first exports to Venice began. Before the 1953 Ionian earthquake, there were 200 oil presses operating on the island; today, there are thirteen. There are over one millionolive trees on Cephalonia, covering almost 55% of the island's area. Olive oil is very important to the island's local, agricultural economy. "Koroneiki" and "theiako" are the two main varieties cultivated on the island, followed by a smaller number of "ntopia" and "matolia". Kefalonian olive oil has a green tone, a rich, greasy touch, and low acidity.
Tourism to Cephalonia started in the early 19th century. Theroyal family of Greece sent their children in the summerLixouri, in the early 20th century, but the island was not discovered by most tourists until the 1980s. Cephalonia is a popular holiday destination for many Italians, due to its proximity toItaly.[citation needed][37]
Two cultural attractions, the fishing villages ofFiscardo andAssos, and other natural attractions, includingMelissani underground lake,Drogarati cave andMyrtos beach, have helped popularize Cephalonia. The filmCaptain Corelli's Mandolin (film) (2001), filmed on the island, made Cephalonia more widely known. The film was mainly shot inArgostoli,Sami and on Antisamos Beach.[38]
Across the broader island, two largemonasteries are to be found: the first is that of Haghia Panagia in Markopoulo to the southeast, and the other lies on the road between Argostoli and Michata, on a small plain surrounded by mountains. This second has an avenue of about 200 trees aligned from NW to SE, with a circle in the middle, and is the monastery ofSaint Gerasimus of Kefalonia,patron saint of the island, whoserelics can be seen and venerated at the old church of the monastery. The monastery of "Sissia" was probably founded byFrancis of Assisi, it was destroyed in 1953 but the ruins still exist. Although much of the island was destroyed by earthquakes, many notable churches all over the island have survived, some dating back to the renaissance. The ornaments of the churches are influenced by Venetian manierism.
The Ionian Islands have a musical tradition called theIonian School. Lixouri has the Philharmonic Orchestra (since 1836) and Argostoli the Rokos Vergottis Conservatory.Richard Strauss visited Lixouri some times where he had an affair with the pianist Dora Wihan (born Weiss).
The Ionian Islands also developed a distinctive culture primarily as they did not experience Ottoman occupation, instead having ties to Venice, and musically drew from Italian influences, and Western Harmonics. This evolved into a unique musical style among the Greeks, the Cantada (Serenade) very similar to the Latin/Spanish/Italian Cantar (to sing). The Cantadas are an example of the Ionian music. Cantadas are still very popular and can be heard even today.
The novelistsNikos Kavvadias (1910–1975) and the SwissGeorges Haldas [de] (1917–2010) spent parts of their life on the island.Andreas Laskaratos was a satirical poet and wrote about the society in the town of Lixouri.Lord Byron wrote parts of "Prelude" and "Don Juan" in Livatho.
Additionally, a theory was proposed by Greek researcher Libieris Liberatos as to the true identity of the island setting from Shakespeare's "The Tempest" being Cephallonia.[39]
Perhaps the best known appearance of Cephalonia inpopular culture is in the novelCaptain Corelli's Mandolin, by the English authorLouis de Bernières. The book is believed to have been inspired by the village ofFarsa, just outside Argostoli. The love story comprising the theme of the book is set before and after theAcqui Division massacre,[40] during the Second World War.A film adaptation was released in 2001. During filming there was lively debate between theproduction team,local authorities as well as groups of citizens, as to the complex historical details of the island'santifascist resistance. As a result, political references were omitted from the film, and the romantic core of the book was preserved, without entering complex debates about the island's history. In 2005,Riccardo Milani made his TV film,Cefalonia, also about the massacre, with music byEnnio Morricone.
There are five harbours and ports in the prefecture and you can get to Kefalonia by boat: four main harbours on the island,Sami, a major port with links toPatras andIthaca; Poros, in the south, has ferry routes toKyllini; Argostoli, in the west, is the largest port, for local boats and ferries toZante and regularly to Lixouri;Fiscardo, in the north, has links toLefkas and Ithaca. There is room for about 100 small boats[44] in Argostoli, where the port stretches 1 kilometre around the bay, while Lixouri is situated 4 km (2 mi) across the bay from Argostoli, on the Lixouri peninsula. There is a road connection to the rest of the island, but driving from Lixouri to Argostoli involves a 30 km (19 mi) detour.
The first larger roads were built by the British in the 19th century. In the 20th century asphalted roads were built, and since 1995 almost all streets connecting villages and beaches are covered with asphalt. Since c. 2000 the Lixouri bypass was built and a four lane street south of Argostoli was constructed.Some important roads include:
The ferry between Argostoli and Lixouri goes every hour and every half-hour in the season. There are a few bus lines serving the more rural areas of Kefalonia, but often only two times a day. TheKTEL bus cooperation offers services from Lixouri, Poros and Argostoli to the mainland.
Cephalonia has one airport,Kefalonia Island International Airport, namedAnna Pollatou (IATA:EFL,ICAO:LGKF) with a runway around 2.4 km (1.5 mi). in length, located about 10 km (6 mi) south of Argostoli. Almost every scheduled flight is anOlympic Air route, flying mainly to and from Athens, although there is an Ionian Island Hopper[45] service three times a week calling at Cephalonia,Zante andLefkas. In summer the airport handles a number ofcharter flights from all over Europe.
In December 2015 the privatisation of Kefalonia Airport and 13 other regional airports of Greece was finalised with the signing of the agreement between theFraport AG/Copelouzos Group joint venture and the state privatisation fund. "We signed the deal today," the head of Greece's privatisation agencyHRADF, Stergios Pitsiorlas, told Reuters. According to the agreement, the joint venture will operate the 14 airports (including Kefallinia International Airport) for 40 years as of autumn 2016.
The municipality of Lixouri coincides with the former municipalityPaliki.
The regional unit has an area of 786.575 km2.[47] The Cephalonia regional unit also includes a number of uninhabited islands of theEchinades group. They are administered by the municipal unit of Pylaros. The most significant are as follows:
Epiphanes was born on Cephalonia in the late 1st century or early 2nd century to Carpocrates (his father), and Alexandria of Kephallenia. He is the legendary author ofOn Righteousness, a notable Gnostic literary work that promotes communist principles.
Gaius Antonius Hybrida, the uncle of the famed triumvir Mark Antony and co-consul of Cicero, who was exiled to Cephalonia in 59 BC.
Middle Ages to 1800
Juan de Fuca (Ioannis Phokas) (1536–1602), captain and explorer[52]
Giacomo Pylarini (1659–1718), doctor who gave the first smallpox inoculation outside of Turkey and contributed to the later development of vaccination against smallpox, by Edward Jenner.
Ilias Miniatis (1669–1714), clergyman, writer and preacher. Born in Lixouri
Andreas Metaxas (Greek:Ανδρέας Μεταξάς) (1786 – September 19, 1860), prime minister of Greece born on the island of Cephalonia.
Spiridonos Louzis (Greek:Σπυρίδωνος Λούζης) (c. 1741–1815), Greek scholar, diplomat, politician and naturalized ambassador of Prussia.[51]
Petros Melissinos (Greek:Πέτρος Μελισσηνός)(c. 1726–1797) was a General of the Army of the Russian Empire and was widely considered the best Russian artilleryman of the 18th century.[54]
1800 to recent past
Giovanni Carandino, also known as Ioannis Karandinos (Greek:Ιωάννης Καραντηνός) was a Greek mathematician and translator of the major French mathematical works in the early 19th century.
Panayis Athanase Vagliano, (Greek:Παναγής Βαλλιάνος) a.k.a. Panaghis Athanassiou Vallianos, (1814–1902) was a merchant and shipowner, acclaimed as the father of modern Greek shipping.
Photinos Panas, (January 30, 1832 – 1903) ophthalmologist, born on the Greek island of Cephalonia, Spartia. In 1860 he obtained his medical degree at Paris. He was the first professor of ophthalmology at the University of Paris, and in 1879 established the ophthalmology clinic at the Hôtel-Dieu de Paris.
Ioannis Metaxas (April 12, 1871 – January 29, 1941), General, appointed Prime Minister of Greece between April and August 1936, and dictator during the 4th of August Regime, from 1936 until his death in 1941.
Marinos Antypas (1872–1907), lawyer and journalist, one of the country's first socialists
Christian Zervos (1889–1970) art collector, writer and publisher
^Robert L. Fowler, 'The myth of Kephalos as aition of rain-magic' (Pherekydes FrGHist 3F34), inZeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik97 (1993), pp. 29–42
^abcΠροσδιορισμός και χαρτογράφηση των ορνιθολογικά ευαίσθητων στα αιολικά πάρκα περιοχών της Ελλάδας, Ελληνική Ορνιθολογική Εταιρεία (Griechische Ornithologische Gesellschaft)PDF Online[permanent dead link] (1,883 MB), griechisch
^abKosch, Wilhelm (1959).Biographisches Staatshandbuch: Lexikon der Politik, Presse und Publizistik, Volume 1. Francke. p. 798.OCLC9227578.Lusi, Spiridion Count of, born 1741 studied on the island of Cephalonia, who died in 1811, at Potsdam, educated at the Greek College in Venice, Padua
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