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Themass media in Ba'athist Syria consisted primarily of television, radio, Internet, film and print. The national language ofBa'athist Syria was Arabic but some publications and broadcasts were also disseminated in English and French.[1] While television was the most popular medium in Ba'athist Syria, the Internet became a widely utilized vehicle to disseminate content by 2013. In addition to its control of domestic media, the Ba'athist state also sought to control what Syrians saw by restricting coverage from outside sources.[2] Publications and broadcasts were monitored by members of the government.[1] Allmass media outlets were under the supervision of theMinistry of Information. Third article of the 2013 Information Ministry guidelines stipulated that the purpose of all media outlets was "to enlighten public opinion" in line with the ideological doctrines "of theArab Socialist Ba’ath Party and the policy of thestate".[3]
FollowingBa'ath party'scapture of power in 1963, the state immediately banned all news outlets except which advanced party propaganda. Syrians have had no exposure to free media or independent press since then, with there being no space for independent journalism, newspapers, publications, journalists or websites un-affiliated with party organizations. The situation worsened further after 1970, with theBa'athist dictatorship imposing additionalcensorship policies that furthered itstotalitarian control of the society until theSyrian Revolution erupts acrossSyria which began on 15 March 2011 until the dictatorBashar al-Assad and hisfamily are overthrown on 8 December 2024 with theFall of Damascus to the government rebels which led the Assad family left Syria at midnight forRussia which landed inMoscow for a political asylum as refuge.[4] State propaganda machine was primarily used to monopoliseinformation access and indoctrinate the Syrian population inBa'athist ideology.[5]
Ba'athist Syria was one of the most dangerous places in the world forjournalists and was ranked 2nd worst in theWorld Press Freedom Index in 2024.[6][7] There were 28 journalists killed in combat in 2012.[8] Between 2011 and 2020, more than 700 civilian journalists have been killed in Syria and an estimated 78% of these killings were perpetrated by Ba'athist forces. More than 400 journalists were arrested or kidnapped in the course of theSyrian civil war. More than a third of independent journalists reporting on the war were forced to flee after Assad regime's capture of territories in Southern and Eastern Syria during 2016-2018.[9][10] During the early years of theSyrian revolution, there was a mass flight of local journalists due to persecution, threats, harassment,torture,executions andkidnappings from Ba'athist and pro-Assad militias. Ba'athist Syria had numerous laws such as "1965 law of protection against therevolution", "2011 media law", "2012 terrorism law", "2021 cybercrime law" which enabled the state to formally indict journalists and give a legal cover to mediacensorship.[11]
Public media journalists in Ba'athist Syria practiced self-censorship.[8] Public media consisted of television, print, film, radio and internet and social media.
According toHuman Rights Watch,The Syrian Arab Establishment for Distribution of Printed Products, which was affiliated with theMinistry of Information, vetted all newspapers prior to distribution. The only two private daily newspapers covering political topics that have succeeded in staying open are owned by businessmen closely tied to the Ba'athist regime:Baladna andAl-Watan.[12]Al-Watan, a private daily formerly published by businessmanRami Makhlouf, Bashar al-Assad's cousin, was launched in 2006.United Group, a major advertising group owned byMajd Suleiman, son of a former senior intelligence officer (Bahjat Suleiman), owns and operated the private dailyBaladna.[13]
Other Ba'athist and semi-official pro-Assadist private prints were permitted to be published in Ba'athist Syria such asdailies:Al-Thawra,Tishreen,Al-Ba'ath andAl-Iqtissadiya.[14]
There is one main broadcaster for both television and radio called theGeneral Organization of Radio and Television of Syria (ORTAS). It was founded in 1960 and is based in Damascus. The channel has programs in Arabic, English and French.[1] TV is the most popular media in Syria.[8]
TheSyrian film industry is state-run by the Ministry of Culture, which controls production through the National Organization for Cinema. The industry is largely propaganda based, focusing on Syria's successes in agriculture, health, transportation and infrastructure.[15]
First radio service began in 1941 in Syria.[16] There are over 4 million radios in Syria. They tend to broadcast music, ads and stories relating to culture.[1]
Providing hosting services is a violation of United States sanctions.[17] Ba'athist Syrian government websites,news agencies andonline news services based in or targeted at Syria, several of which launched during the Syrian civil war, include:[17]
The public does have access to Western radio stations and satellite TV, andQatar-basedAl Jazeera has become very popular in Syria.[28]
In August 2012, a media centre utilized by foreign reporters inAzaz was targeted by theSyrian Air Force in an airstrike on a civilian area duringRamadan.[29]
There are also satellite stations which broadcast outside Syria. Two of the primary satellite networks, Eutelsat and Nilesat, have recently expressed frustrations over the Syrian government preventing satellite TV transmissions broadcast from international outlets.[8]
With the breakdown of many traditional media outlets during the civil war, much of the current events are reported by individuals on Facebook and Twitter. However, the reliability of such reports can in many cases not be independently verified by credible news agencies. While many websites have appeared and publish a pro-opposition alternative to pro-government media, the lack of robust journalistic standards has often benefited the government since correctly denying news reports gives them more credibility.[35]
The constitution of the Syrian Arab Republic guaranteed the right to afree press andfreedom of expression, but Syria was under a highly restrictive state of emergency law since theBa'ath Party came to power in 1964 until 2011. Anyone wishing to establish an independent paper or periodical must apply for a license from the Ministry of Information.[28] In 2011 the state of emergency was lifted.[41] This seems to have had no effect what-so-ever on the way the government conducted itself regarding the media, with Syria's ranking actually worsening the following year with journalistic organizations such as theCommittee to Protect Journalists,[42] andReporters Without Borders[43] both ranking Syria as one of the top four most repressive countries in the world.
In April 2009,Syrian Kurdish journalist Faruq Haji Mustafa was arrested by theBa'athist secret police and has never been heard from again.[44]
In 2012, there were over 5 million Internet users in Syria. Reporters Without Borders listed Ba'athist Syria as an “internet enemy” due to high levels of censorship. The Internet was controlled by theSyrian Computer Society (SCS) and the Syrian Telecommunications Establishment (STE).[45] The Assad regime monitored activity through the hacking of emails and social networking accounts and phishing. Simultaneously, the government released pro-Assad propaganda and engaged indisinformation campaigns to support its cause.[46] Ba'athist Syria's penal law requiredInternet cafes to record all comments in the online chatrooms.[47] There was a two-day Internet blackout in 2012, which was orchestrated by the Assad regime.[8] Ba'athist authorities constantly blocked journalists and bloggers from attending and reporting on events by arresting and torturing them. This was not limited to Syrian journalists as several foreign journalists, such as the members of theAssociated Press andReuters, were also arrested and expelled from the country over their reporting.[46]
Reporters Without Borders ranked Ba'athist Syria 179th out of 180 countries in the world on its 2024Press Freedom Index.[6] On the Press Freedom Barometer for 2022, the organization reports that 1 journalist has been killed, while 27 journalists and 2 media workers have been imprisoned.[48]
The report notes that 707 citizen journalists have been killed since March 2011 to date, 78% of them by Syrian Regime forces.
The regime treats the media as a tool for disseminating Baathist ideology and excludes any form of pluralism, driving many journalists into self-imposed exile...During the initial anti-government protests, the government banned international media outlets and freelancers from entering the country...with the risks of arrest, abduction, torture or murder, Syrian journalists are often forced to flee the country to escape mistreatment or death.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link){{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help)Phone +96352463446 (Hasaka Syria number)
Joseph DaherSyria, the uprising and the media scene,OpenDemocracy 26 October 2017
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