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Celtic mythology is the body ofmyths belonging to theCeltic peoples.[1] Like otherIron Age Europeans, Celtic peoples followeda polytheistic religion, having many gods and goddesses. The mythologies ofcontinental Celtic peoples, such as theGauls andCeltiberians, did not survive their conquest by theRoman Empire, the loss of theirCeltic languages and their subsequent conversion toChristianity. Only remnants are found in Greco-Roman sources and archaeology. Most surviving Celtic mythology belongs to theInsular Celtic peoples (theGaels ofIreland andScotland; theCeltic Britons of westernBritain andBrittany). They preserved some of their myths inoral lore, which were eventually written down by Christian scribes in theMiddle Ages.Irish mythology has the largest written body of myths, followed byWelsh mythology.
The supernatural race called theTuatha Dé Danann is believed to be based on the main Celtic gods of Ireland, while many Welsh characters belong either to the Plant Dôn ("Children ofDôn") or the Plant Llŷr ("Children ofLlŷr"). Some figures in Insular Celtic myth have ancient continental parallels: IrishLugh and WelshLleu are cognate withLugus,Goibniu andGofannon withGobannos,Macán andMabon withMaponos, and so on. One common figure is thesovereignty goddess, who represents the land and bestows sovereignty on a king by marrying him. TheOtherworld is also a common motif, a parallel realm of the supernatural races, which is visited by some mythical heroes. Celtic myth influenced laterArthurian legend.
Though the Celtic world at its height covered much of western and central Europe, it was not politically unified, nor was there any substantial central source of cultural influence or homogeneity; as a result, there was a great deal of variation in local practices ofCeltic religion (although certain motifs, for example, the godLugh, appear to have diffused throughout the Celtic world). Inscriptions of more than three hundred deities, often equated with their Roman counterparts, have survived, but of these most appear to have beengenii locorum, local or tribal gods, and few were widely worshiped. However, from what has survived of Celtic mythology, it is more possible to discern commonalities that hint at a more unified pantheon than is often credited.
The nature and functions of these ancient gods can be deduced from their names, the location of their inscriptions, theiriconography, theRoman gods they are equated with, and similar figures from later bodies of Celtic mythology.
Celtic mythology is found in distinct if related, subgroups, largely corresponding to the branches of theCeltic languages:
As a result of the scarcity of surviving materials bearing writtenGaulish, it is surmised that most of the Celtic writings were destroyed by the Romans, though a written form of Gaulish usingGreek,Latin andOld Italic alphabets was used (as evidenced by votive items bearing inscriptions in Gaulish and theColigny calendar).[3]Julius Caesar attests to the literacy of the Gauls, but also wrote that their priests, thedruids, were forbidden to use writing to record certain verses of religious significance[4] (Caesar,Commentarii de Bello Gallico 6.14) while also noting that theHelvetii had a written census (Caesar,De Bello Gallico 1.29).
Rome introduced a more widespread habit of public inscriptions and broke the power of the druids in the areas it conquered; in fact, most inscriptions todeities discovered inGaul (modernFrance andNorthern Italy),Britain and other formerly (or presently) Celtic-speaking areas post-date the Roman conquest.
Though early Gaels in Ireland and parts ofWales usedOgham script to record short inscriptions (largely personal names), more sophisticated literacy was not introduced to Celtic areas that had not been conquered by Rome until the advent ofChristianity. Many Gaelic myths were first recorded by Christian monks, albeit without most of their original religious meanings.[5]
Irish mythology is the largest surviving branch of Celtic mythology. It was originallypassed down orally in theprehistoric era. Many myths were laterwritten down in theearly medieval era by Christian scribes, who modified and Christianized them to some extent.
The myths are conventionally grouped into 'cycles'. TheMythological Cycle, or Cycle of the Gods, consists of tales and poems about the god-likeTúatha Dé Danann and other mythical races.[6] Many of the Tuath Dé are thought to represent Irish deities.[7][8] They are often depicted as kings, queens, druids, bards, warriors, heroes, healers and craftsmen who have supernatural powers. Prominent members of the Tuath Dé includeThe Dagda ("the great god"), who seems to have been the chief god;[9]The Morrígan ("the great queen" or "phantom queen"), a triple goddess associated with war, fate and sovereignty;[10]Lugh;Nuada;Aengus;Brigid;Manannán;Dian Cecht the healer; andGoibniu the smith, one of theTrí Dé Dána ("three gods of craft").[11] Their traditional rivals are the monstrousFomorians (Fomoire), whom the Tuath Dé defeated in theCath Maige Tuired ("Battle of Moytura"). Other important works in the cycle are theLebor Gabála Érenn ("Book of Invasions"), alegendary history of Ireland, and theAided Chlainne Lir ("Children of Lir").
TheUlster Cycle consists of heroic legends about theUlaid. It focuses on the mythical Ulster kingConchobar mac Nessa and his court atEmain Macha, the heroCú Chulainn, and their conflict with theConnachta and queenMedb. The longest and most important tale is the epicTáin Bó Cúailnge (Cattle Raid of Cooley).[12]
TheFianna Cycle is about the exploits of the mythical heroFionn and hiswarrior band theFianna, including the lengthyAcallam na Senórach ("Tales of the Elders").[12]
TheKings' Cycle comprises legends about historical and semi-historical kings of Ireland (such asBuile Shuibhne, "The Madness of King Sweeny"), and tales about the origins of dynasties and peoples.[12]
There are also mythical texts that do not fit into any of the cycles; these include theechtrai tales of journeys tothe Otherworld (such asThe Voyage of Bran), and theDindsenchas ("lore of places"). Some written material has not survived, and many more myths were probably never written down.
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Important reflexes of British mythology appear in theFour Branches of the Mabinogi, especially in the names of several characters, such asRhiannon,Teyrnon, andBrân the Blessed (Bendigeidfran, "Bran [Crow] the Blessed"). Other characters, in all likelihood, derive from mythological sources, and various episodes, such as the appearance ofArawn, a king of the Otherworld seeking the aid of a mortal in his own feuds, and the tale of the hero who cannot be killed except under seemingly contradictory circumstances, can be traced throughoutProto-Indo-European mythology. The children ofLlŷr ("Sea" = IrishLer) in the Second and Third Branches, and the children ofDôn (Danu in Irish and earlier Indo-European tradition) in the Fourth Branch are major figures, but the tales themselves are not primary mythology.
While further mythological names and references appear elsewhere in Welsh narrative and tradition, especially in the tale ofCulhwch and Olwen, where we find, for example,Mabon ap Modron ("Divine Son of the Divine Mother"), and in the collectedWelsh Triads, not enough is known of the British mythological background to reconstruct either a narrative of creation or a coherent pantheon of British deities. Though there is much in common with Irish myth, there may have been no unified British mythological traditionper se. Whatever its ultimate origins, the surviving material has been put to good use in the service of literary masterpieces that address the cultural concerns ofWales in the early and later Middle Ages.
The Celts also worshiped a number of deities of which little more is known thantheir names. Classical writers preserve a few fragments of legends or myths that may possibly be Celtic.[13]
According to the Syrian rhetoricianLucian,Ogmios was supposed to lead a band of men chained by their ears to his tongue as a symbol of the strength of his eloquence.
The first-century Roman poetLucan mentions the godsTaranis,Teutates andEsus, but there is little Celtic evidence that these were important deities.
A number ofobjets d'art, coins, and altars may depict scenes from lost myths, such as the representations ofTarvos Trigaranus or of an equestrian ‘Jupiter’ surmounting theAnguiped (a snake-legged human-like figure). TheGundestrup cauldron has also been interpreted mythically.[14]
Along with dedications giving us god names, there are also deity representations to which no name has yet been attached. Among these are images of a three-headed or three-faced god, a squatting god, a god with a snake, a god with a wheel, and a horseman with a kneeling giant.[15] Some of these images can be found inLate Bronze Agepeat bogs in Britain,[16] indicating the symbols were both pre-Roman and widely spread across Celtic culture. The distribution of some of the images has been mapped and shows a pattern of central concentration of an image along with a wide scatter, indicating these images were most likely attached to specific tribes and were distributed from some central point of tribal concentration outward along the lines of trade. The image of the three-headed god is centrally concentrated among the Belgae, between the Oise, Marne, and Moselle rivers. The horseman with the kneeling giant is centered on either side of the Rhine. These examples seem to indicate regional preferences for a common image stock.[15]
The classic entry about the Celtic gods of Gaul is byJulius Caesar's history of his war in Gaul.[17] In this he names the five principal gods worshiped in Gaul (according to thepractice of his time, he gives the names of the closest equivalent Roman gods) and describes their roles:
Mercury was the most venerated of all the deities, and numerous representations of him were to be discovered. Mercury was seen as the originator of all the arts (and is often taken to refer toLugus for this reason), the supporter of adventurers and of traders, and the mightiest power concerning trade and profit.
Next the Gauls reveredApollo,Mars,Jupiter, andMinerva. Among these divinities, Caesar described the Gauls as holding roughly equal views as other populations: Apollo dispels sickness, Minerva encourages skills, Jupiter governs the skies, and Mars influences warfare. MacBain argues that Apollo corresponds toIrish Lugh, Mercury toManannan mac Lir, Jupiter tothe Dagda, Mars toNeit, and Minerva toBrigit.[18]
In addition to these five, Caesar mentions that the Gauls traced their ancestry toa god he likened to Dis Pater[19] (possibly IrishDonn).
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)Three gods patronize the crafts: Goibniu, Credne and Luchta.
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