Thegods andgoddesses of the pre-ChristianCeltic peoples are known from a variety of sources, including ancient places of worship, statues, engravings, cult objects, and place or personal names. The ancient Celts appear to have had a pantheon of deities comparable to others inIndo-European religion, each linked to aspects of life and the natural world. By aprocess of syncretism, after the Roman conquest of Celtic areas, most of these became associated with their Roman equivalents, and their worship continued untilChristianization. Epona was an exception and retained without association with any Roman deity. Pre-RomanCeltic art produced few images of deities, and these are hard to identify, lacking inscriptions, but in the post-conquest period many more images were made, some with inscriptions naming the deity. Most of the specific information we have therefore comes from Latin writers and the archaeology of the post-conquest period. More tentatively, links can be made between ancientCeltic deities and figures in early medievalIrish andWelsh literature, although all these works were produced well after Christianization.
Thelocus classicus for theCeltic gods ofGaul is the passage inJulius Caesar'sCommentarii de Bello Gallico (The Gallic War, 52–51 BC) in which he names six of them, together with their functions. He says thatMercury was the most honoured of all the deities and many images of him were to be found. Mercury was regarded as the inventor of all the arts, the patron of travellers and of merchants, and the most powerful deity in matters of commerce and gain. After him, the Gauls honouredApollo, who drove away diseases,Mars, who controlled war,Jupiter, who ruled the heavens, andMinerva, who promoted handicrafts. He adds that the Gauls regardeda god he likened to Dis Pater as their ancestor.[1]
Incharacteristic Roman fashion, Caesar does not refer to these figures by their native names but by the names of the Roman deities with which he equated them, a procedure that complicates the task of identifying his Gaulish deities with their counterparts in the insular Celtic literatures. He also presents a neat schematic equation of deity and function that is quite foreign to the vernacular literary testimony. Yet, given its limitations, his brief catalog is a valuable witness.
The deities named by Caesar are well-attested in the later epigraphic record of Gaul and Britain. Not infrequently, their names are coupled with native Celtic theonyms and epithets, such as MercuryVisucius,Lenus Mars, JupiterPoeninus, orSulis Minerva. Unsyncretised theonyms are also widespread, particularly among goddesses such asSulevia,Sirona,Rosmerta, andEpona. In all, several hundred names containing a Celtic element are attested in Gaul. The majority occur only once, which has led some scholars to conclude that the Celtic deities and their cults were local and tribal rather than national. Supporters of this view citeLucan's mention of a deity calledTeutates, which they interpret as "god of the tribe" (it is thought thatteuta- meant "tribe" in Celtic).[2]
Evidence from the Roman period presents a wide array of gods and goddesses who are represented by images or inscribed dedications.[3] Certain deities were venerated widely across the Celtic world, while others were limited only to a single region or even to a specific locality.[3] Certain local or regional deities might have greater popularity within their spheres than supra-regional deities. For example, in east-centralGaul, the local healing goddessSequana of present-day Burgundy, was probably more influential in the minds of her local devotees than theMatres, who were worshipped all over Britain, Gaul, and theRhineland.[4]
Among the divinities transcending tribal boundaries were theMatres,Cernunnos, the sky-godTaranis, andEpona. Epona, the horse-goddess, was invoked by devotees living as far apart asBritain,Rome, andBulgaria. A distinctive feature of the Matres, or mother-goddesses, was their frequent depiction as a triad in many parts of Britain, in Gaul, and on theRhine, although it is possible to identify strong regional differences within this group.[5]
The Celtic sky-god also had variations in the way he was perceived and his cult expressed. Yet the link between the Celtic Jupiter and the solar wheel is maintained over a wide area, fromHadrian's Wall toCologne andNîmes.[6]
It is sometimes possible to identify regional, tribal, or sub-tribal divinities. Specific to theRemi of northwestGaul is a distinctive group of stone carvings depicting a triple-faced god with shared facial features and luxuriant beards. In theIron Age, this same tribe issuedcoins with three faces, a motif found elsewhere inGaul.[6] Another tribal god wasLenus, venerated by theTreveri. He was worshipped at a number of Treveran sanctuaries, the most splendid of which was at the tribal capital ofTrier itself. Yet he was also exported to other areas:Lenus has altars set up to him inChedworth inGloucestershire andCaerwent inWales.[6]
Many Celtic divinities were extremely localised, sometimes occurring in just one shrine, perhaps because the spirit concerned was agenius loci, the governing spirit of a particular place.[6] InGaul, more than four hundred different Celtic deity-names are recorded, of which at least 300 occur just once.Sequana was confined to herspringshrine nearDijon,Sulis belonged toBath. The divine coupleUcuetis andBergusia were worshipped solely atAlesia inBurgundy. The British godNodens is associated above all with the great sanctuary atLydney (although he also appears atCockersand Moss in Cumbria). Two other British deities,Cocidius andBelatucadrus, were both Martial deities and were each worshipped in clearly defined territories in the area ofHadrian's Wall.[6] There are many other deities whose names may betray origins astopographical spirits.Vosegus presided over the mountains of theVosges,Luxovius over thespa-settlement ofLuxeuil, and Vasio over the town ofVaison in the LowerRhône Valley.[7]
One notable feature of Gaulish and Romano-Celtic sculpture is the frequent appearance of male and female deities in pairs, such asRosmerta and ‘Mercury’,Nantosuelta andSucellos,Sirona andApollo Grannus,Borvo andDamona, orMars Loucetius andNemetona.[8]
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A recurrent figure in Gaulish iconography is a deity sitting cross-legged with antlers, sometimes surrounded by animals, often wearing or holding atorc. The name frequently now applied to this deity, Cernunnos, is attested only a few times: on thePillar of the Boatmen, a relief in Paris (currently reading ERNUNNOS, but an early sketch shows it as having read CERNUNNOS in the 18th century); on an inscription fromMontagnac (αλλετ[ει]νος καρνονου αλ[ι]σο[ντ]εας, "Alletinos [dedicated this] to Carnonos of Alisontea"[9]); and on a pair of identical inscriptions fromSeinsel-Rëlent ("Deo Ceruninco"[10]). Figured representations of this sort of deity, however, are widespread; the earliest known was found atVal Camonica in northern Italy,[citation needed] while the most famous is plate A of theGundestrup Cauldron, a 1st-century BC vessel found in Denmark. On the Gundestrup Cauldron and sometimes elsewhere, Cernunnos, or a similar figure, is accompanied by a ram-headed serpent. At Reims, the figure is depicted with acornucopia overflowing with grains or coins.[2]
Healing deities are known from many parts of the Celtic world; they frequently have associations withthermal springs, healing wells,herbalism, and light.
Brigid, the triple goddess of healing, poetry, and smithcraft is perhaps the most well-known of the Insular Celtic deities of healing. She is associated with many healing springs andwells. A lesser-known Irish healing goddess isAirmed, also associated with a healing well and with the healing art of herbalism.
In Romano-Celtic traditionBelenus (traditionally derived from a Celtic root*belen- ‘bright’,[11] although other etymologies have been convincingly proposed[12]) is found chiefly insouthern France andnorthern Italy.Apollo Grannus, although concentrated in central and eastern Gaul, also “occurs associated with medicinal waters in Brittany [...] and far away in the Danube Basin”.[13] Grannus's companion is frequently the goddessSirona. Another important Celtic deity of healing isBormo orBorvo, particularly associated with thermal springs such asBourbonne-les-Bains andBourbon-Lancy. Such hot springs were (and often still are) believed to have therapeutic value. Green interprets the name Borvo to mean “seething, bubbling, or boiling spring water”.[13]
In Celtic culture, the sun is assumed to have been feminine,[14][15] and several goddesses have been proposed as possibly solar in character.
InIrish, the name of the sun,Grian, is feminine. The figure known asÁine is generally assumed to have been either synonymous with her, or her sister, assuming the role of Summer Sun while Grian was the Winter Sun.[16]
Similarly,Étaín has at times been considered to be another theonym associated with the sun; if this is the case, then the pan-CelticEpona might also have been originally solar in nature,[16] although Roman syncretism pushed her toward alunar role.[citation needed]
The BritishSulis has a name cognate with that of other Indo-European solar deities such as the GreekHelios and IndicSurya,[17][18] and bears some solar traits such as association with the eye as well as epithets associated with light. The theonymSulevia, which is more widespread and probably unrelated to Sulis,[19] is sometimes taken to have suggested a pan-Celtic role as a solar goddess.[14] She indeed might have been thede facto solar deity of the Celts.[citation needed]
TheWelshOlwen has at times been considered a vestige of the local sun goddess, in part due to the possible etymological association[20] with the wheel and the colours gold, white, and red.[14]
Brighid has at times been argued as having had a solar nature, fitting her role as a goddess of fire and light.[14]
InIreland, there are numerousholy wells dedicated to the goddessBrighid. There are dedications to ‘Minerva’ in Britain and throughout the Celtic areas of the continent. AtBath, Minerva was identified with the goddessSulis, whose cult there centred on the thermal springs.
Other goddesses were also associated with sacred springs, such asIcovellauna among theTreveri andCoventina atCarrawburgh.Damona andBormana also serve this function in companionship with the spring-god Borvo (see above).
A number of goddesses were deified rivers, notablyBoann (of theRiver Boyne),Sinann (theRiver Shannon),Sequana (the deifiedSeine),Matrona (theMarne),Souconna (the deifiedSaône), and perhapsBelisama (theRibble).
While the most well-known deity of the sea is the godManannán, and his fatherLir mostly considered as god of the ocean.Nodens is associated with healing, the sea, hunting, and dogs.
In Lusitanian and Celtic polytheism, Borvo (also Bormo, Bormanus, Bormanicus, Borbanus, Boruoboendua, Vabusoa, Labbonus, or Borus) was a healing deity associated with bubbling spring water.[21]Condatis was associated with the confluences of rivers in Britain and Gaul,Luxovius was the god of thesacred waters ofLuxeuil and was worshipped in Gaul.Dian Cécht was the god of healing to the Irish people. He healed with the fountain of healing, and he was indirectly the cause of the name of theRiver Barrow.[22]Grannus was a deity associated with spas, healing thermal and mineral springs, and the sun.
The horse, an instrument ofIndo-European expansion, plays a part in all the mythologies of the various Celtic cultures. The cult of the Gaulish horse goddessEpona was widespread and as noted above, may have solar associations. Adopted by the Roman cavalry, worship of Epona spread throughout much of Europe, even to the city of Rome itself. She seems to be the embodiment of "horse power" or horsemanship, which was likely perceived as a power vital for the success and protection of the tribe. She has insular analogues in the WelshRhiannon and in the IrishÉdaín Echraidhe (echraidhe, "horse riding") and inMacha, who outran the fastest steeds.
A number of pre-conquestCeltic coins show a female rider who may be Epona.
The Irish horse goddessMacha, perhaps a threefold goddess, is associated with battle and sovereignty. Although a goddess in her own right, she is also considered to be part ofMorrigan, the triple goddess of battle and slaughter. Other goddesses in their own right associated with the Morrígan wereBadhbh Catha andNemain.
Atepomarus in Celtic Gaul was a healing god, and inscriptions were found in Mauvières (Indre). The epithet is sometimes translated as "Great Horseman" or "possessing a great horse".
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Mother goddesses are a recurrent feature in Celtic religions. The epigraphic record reveals many dedications to the Matres or Matronae, which are particularly prolific aroundCologne in theRhineland.[8] Iconographically, Celtic mother goddesses may appear singly or, quite often,triply; they usually hold fruit,cornucopiae, orpaterae;[2] they may also be full-breasted (or many-breasted) figures nursing infants.
Welsh and Irish tradition preserve a number of mother figures such as the WelshDôn,Rhiannon (‘great queen’), andModron (from Matrona, ‘great mother’), and the IrishDanu,Boand,Macha, andErnmas. However, all of these fulfill many roles in the mythology and symbolism of the Celts, and cannot be limited to motherhood alone. In many of their tales, their having children is only mentioned in passing, and is not a central facet of their identity. "Mother" Goddesses may also be goddesses of warfare and slaughter, or of healing and smithcraft.
Mother goddesses were at times symbols ofsovereignty, creativity, birth, fertility, sexual union, and nurturing. At other times they could be seen as punishers and destroyers: their offspring may be helpful or dangerous to the community, and the circumstances of their birth may lead to curses,geasa or hardship, such as in the case of Macha's curse of the Ulstermen or Rhiannon's possible devouring of her child and subsequent punishment.
According to Caesar the god most honoured by the Gauls was ‘Mercury’, and this is confirmed by numerous images and inscriptions. Mercury's name is often coupled with Celtic epithets, particularly in eastern and central Gaul; the commonest such names includeVisucius,Cissonius, andGebrinius.[8] Another name,Lugus, is inferred from the recurrentplace-nameLugdunon ('the fort of Lugus') from which the modernLyon,Laon, andLoudun inFrance,Leiden in theNetherlands, andLugo inGalicia derive their names; a similar element can be found inCarlisle (formerly Castra Luguvallium),Legnica in Poland and thecounty Louth in Ireland, derived from the Irish "Lú" that comes from "Lugh". The Irish and Welsh cognates of Lugus areLugh andLleu, respectively, and certain traditions concerning these figures mesh neatly with those of the Gaulish god. Caesar's description of the latter as "the inventor of all the arts" might almost have been a paraphrase of Lugh's conventional epithetsamildánach ("possessed of many talents"), while Lleu is addressed as "master of the twenty crafts" in theMabinogi.[23]
Lugh is said to have instituted the festival ofLughnasadh, celebrated on 1 August, in commemoration of his foster-motherTailtiu.[24]
The GaulishJupiter is often depicted with a thunderbolt in one hand and a distinctive solar wheel in the other. Scholars frequently identify this wheel/sky god withTaranis, who is mentioned byLucan. The name Taranis may be cognate with those ofTaran, a minor figure inWelsh mythology, andTurenn, the father of the 'three gods of Dana' inIrish mythology.
Wheelamulets are found in Celtic areas from before the conquest.
Teutates, also spelled Toutatis (Celtic: "Him of the tribe"), was one of three Celtic gods mentioned by the Roman poetLucan in the 1st century,[25] the other two beingEsus ("lord") andTaranis ("thunderer"). According to later commentators, victims sacrificed to Teutates were killed by being plunged headfirst into a vat filled with an unspecified liquid. Present-day scholars frequently speak of ‘thetoutates’ as plural, referring respectively to the patrons of the several tribes.[2]Of two later commentators on Lucan's text, one identifies Teutates withMercury, the other withMars. He is also known from dedications in Britain, where his name was written as, Toutatis.
Paul-Marie Duval, who considers the Gaulish Mars a syncretism with the Celtictoutates, notes that:
Les représentations de Mars, beaucoup plus rares [que celles de Mercure] (une trentaine de bas-reliefs), plus monotones dans leur académisme classique, et ses surnoms plus de deux fois plus nombreux (une cinquantaine) s'équilibrent pour mettre son importance à peu près sur le même plan que celle de Mercure mais sa domination n'est pas de même nature. Duval (1993)[2]: 73
Mars' representations, much rarer[than Mercury's] (thirty-odd bas reliefs) and more monotone in their studied classicism, and his epithets which are more than twice as numerous (about fifty), balance each other to place his importance roughly on the same level as Mercury, but his domination is not of the same kind.
Esus appears in two continental monuments, including thePillar of the Boatmen, as an axeman cutting branches fromtrees.
Sucellos, the 'good striker' is usually portrayed as amiddle-aged bearded man, with a long-handledhammer, or perhaps a beerbarrel suspended from a pole. His companion,Nantosuelta, the goddess of nature, the earth, fire, and fertility, is sometimes depicted alongside him. When together, they are accompanied by symbols associated with prosperity and domesticity. This figure is often identified withSilvanus, worshipped in southern Gaul under similar attributes;Dis Pater, from whom, according to Caesar, all the Gauls believed themselves to be descended; and the IrishDagda, the 'good god', who possessed a cauldron that was never empty and a huge club.
A club-wielding god identified asOgmios is readily observed in Gaulish iconography.In Gaul, he was identified with the Roman Hercules. He was portrayed as an old man with swarthy skin and armed with a bow and club. He was also a god of eloquence, and in that aspect he was represented as drawing along a company of men whose ears were chained to his tongue.
Ogmios' Irish equivalent wasOgma.Ogham script, an Irishwriting system dating from the 4th century AD, was said to have been invented by him.[26]
Another prominentzoomorphic deity type is the divine bull.Tarvos Trigaranus ("bull with three cranes") is pictured on reliefs from the cathedral atTrier,Germany, and atNotre-Dame deParis.
InIrish literature, theDonn Cuailnge ("Brown Bull of Cooley") plays a central role in the epicTáin Bó Cuailnge ("TheCattle-Raid of Cooley").
A distinctive ram-headed snake accompanies Gaulish gods in a number of representations, includingthe antlered god from theGundestrup cauldron, Mercury, and Mars.
This table shows some of the Celtic and Romano-Celticgods andgoddesses mentioned above, in Romanized form as well as ancient Gaulish, British, or Iberian names as well as those of theTuatha Dé Danann and characters from theMabinogion. They are arranged so as to suggest some linguistic or functional associations among the ancient deities and literary figures; needless to say, all such associations are subject to continual scholarly revision and disagreement. In particular, it has been noted by scholars such as Sjoestedt that it is inappropriate to try to fit Insular Celtic deities into a Roman format as such attempts seriously distort the Insular deities.
