The termcaviar is sometimes used to describe dishes that are perceived to resemble caviar, such as "eggplant caviar" (made fromeggplant) and "Texas caviar" (made fromblack-eyed peas).
The termcaviare orcaviar was first introduced into the English language in the late 16th century and appears to have been borrowed from a number of European languages at the same time, including Frenchcavial, Italiancaviale, Portuguesecaviar, and Spanishcabial, all of which are derived from Turkishkhāvyār (خاویار),[8] which is itself derived from Middle PersianKhāyag-dār meaning "egg-bearing".[9][better source needed] Up to the 17th century, archaic spellings includedchauiale,cavery, andcauiarie, and as early as 1625, it was becoming a three-syllable word, with the final "e" being dropped in speech.[8] In Russian, the term for caviar isikra (икра), a term that was used in the English language in the 16th and 17th centuries asikary.[8]
Caviar andsturgeon from theSea of Azov began reaching the tables of aristocratic and nobleGreeks in the 10th century, after the commencement of large-scale trading between theByzantine Empire andKievan Rus'.[10] The Russians likely learned to process fish eggs with salt from Greek traders who had passed along theBlack Sea coast, but it was not until after theMongol invasions that the caviar industry developed inAstrakhan.[11] Production was for a long time centered on theCaspian Sea, with the Iranians and Russians accounting for most of its output.[12]
In the 16th century,François Rabelais described caviar as the finest item of what is now calledhors d'oeuvre.[12] By 1569, the Russians had conquered the entireVolga River to its mouth.[13] The Volga and its tributaries offered a diverse range of fish, including sturgeon and its caviar, as well assterlets, a type of small sturgeon that pleased both Russian locals and foreigners.[13]
Caviar was eaten differently in the past compared to today.[11] Medieval Russians often ate it hot.[11]The Travels of Olearius in Seventeenth-Century Russia says "they expel the roe from the membrane in which it is contained, salt it, and after it has stood for six to eight days, mix it with pepper and finely chopped onions. Some also add vinegar and country butter before serving it. It is not a bad dish. If one pours a bit of lemon juice over it, instead of vinegar, it gives a good appetite, and has a restorative effect."[11]
The main types of caviar from sturgeon species native to the Caspian Sea areBeluga sturgeon,Sterlet,Russian sturgeon, andSevruga.White Sturgeon is abundant and native to California and theU.S. Pacific Northwest. The rarest and costliest is from beluga sturgeon that swim in the Caspian Sea, which is bordered byIran,Kazakhstan,Russia,Turkmenistan, andAzerbaijan. Wild caviar production was suspended in Russia between 2008 and 2011 to allow wild stocks to replenish. Azerbaijan and Iran also allow the fishing of sturgeon off their coasts. Beluga caviar is prized for its soft, extremely large (pea-size) eggs. It can range in colour from pale silver-grey to black. It is followed by the small goldensterlet caviar which is rare and was once reserved for Russian, Iranian and Austrian royalty. Next in quality is the medium-sized, light brown to rich brownOssetra, also known as Russian caviar. Others in the quality ranking are the grey sevruga caviar, the Chinese Kaluga caviar, and the American white sturgeon caviar. The Siberian variety with black beads is similar to sevruga and is popular because of its reduced (five years) harvest period, but it has a higherbrine content than other kinds. The Chinese Kaluga hybrid varies in colour from dark grey to light golden green and is a close cousin of beluga caviar.[citation needed]
An expensive caviar example at 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) sold for £20,000 (then US$34,500) is the Iranian 'Almas' product (fromPersian:الماس, "diamond") produced from the eggs of a rarealbino sturgeon between 60 and 100 years old from the southernCaspian Sea.[14] Wild beluga sturgeon caviar from the Caspian Sea was priced in 2012 at $16,000 per 1 kilogram (35 oz).[15] Cheaper alternatives have been developed from the roe ofwhitefish and theNorth Atlanticsalmon.[citation needed]
Conventional sturgeon caviar was priced in 2014 at about $105 per 1 ounce (28 g) and from albino sturgeon up to $800 per ounce.[16] Other quality factors are texture – with firmness having higher quality value – flavour qualities, such ascreaminess,butter taste, and brine or mild fishfinish, and whether the caviar was taken from the fish by massage (higher value) rather than by killing it.[16] Caviar is generally sold in ounces. An ounce of sturgeon caviar costs between $45 and $1,000, depending on the variety of sturgeon and other factors.
China produces the most caviar of any single country.[18] The largest caviar company in the world is the Chinese brandKaluga Queen, which cultivates sturgeon atQiandao Lake inZhejiang.[19]
In the wake of over-fishing, the harvest and sale of black caviar were banned in Russia in 2007.[20] The ban on sturgeon fishing in theCaspian Sea has led to the development ofaquaculture as an economically viable means of commercial caviar production.[21] Russian caviar exports were also banned from 2002 to 2011.[22]
Cristoforo da Messisbugo in his bookLibro novo nel qual si insegna a far d'ogni sorte di vivanda, Venice, 1564, at page 110, gave the first recorded recipe in Italy about extraction of the eggs from the roe and caviar preparation "to be consumed fresh or to preserve".[23]The writer and voyagerJérôme Lalande in his book "Voyage en Italie", Paris, 1771, vol. 8, page 269, noted that many sturgeon were caught in thePo delta area in the territory ofFerrara.[24]In 1753 a diplomatic war broke out between thePapal States, governing the Ferrara territory, and theVenetian Republic about sturgeon fishing rights in the Po River, the border between the two states.[25] From about 1920 and until 1942, there was a shop in Ferrara, named "Nuta" from the nickname of the owner Benvenuta Ascoli, that processed all the sturgeons caught in the Po River for caviar extraction, using an elaboration of the original Messisbugo recipe, and shipped it to Italy and Europe. A new owner sporadically continued production until 1972, when the sturgeon stopped swimming up the Po River. Since 2015, some sturgeon have reappeared in the Po.[26]
Currently, Italian caviar is obtained almost entirely from bred sturgeons. The caviar production is concentrated predominantly inBrescia, which is considered the capital of Italian caviar:[27] in this area, inCalvisano, is located the world's largest sturgeon farm,[28] which produces 25 tonnes of caviar each year.[27] Italy is a top producer of caviar.[29]
In the early 20th century,Canada and theUnited States were the major caviar suppliers toEurope; they harvested roe from thelake sturgeon in theNorth American Midwest, and from theshortnose sturgeon and theAtlantic sturgeon spawning in the rivers of theEast Coast of the United States. The American caviar industry started when Henry Schacht, a German immigrant, opened a business catching sturgeon on the Delaware River. He treated his caviar with German salt and exported a great deal of it to Europe. Around the same time, sturgeon was fished from the Columbia River on theWest Coast of the United States, also supplying caviar. American caviar was so plentiful at the time that it was given away at bars to induce or prolong patrons' thirst.[30][31]
Today, the shortnose sturgeon is ratedVulnerable in theIUCN Red List ofendangered species and ratedEndangered per theEndangered Species Act. With the depletion of Caspian and Black Sea caviar, production of farmed or "sustainable" caviar[32] has greatly increased. In particular, northern California is reported to account for 70% to 80% of U.S. production.[33]
In 2021, a significant illegal sturgeon egg harvesting and selling ring run in part by the former top sturgeon biologist for the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (DNR) was discovered and broken up by investigators.[34]
In Malaysia, caviar production is relatively new and smaller in scale. Caviar is harvested from farmed sturgeon fish inTanjung Malim,Perak. The caviar produced here is marketed as "tropical caviar".[45] The first Malaysian brand of tropical caviar was launched in March 2019.[46]
Overfishing, smuggling and pollution caused by sewage entry into the Caspian Sea have considerably reduced the sea's sturgeon population.[48]
In September 2005, theUnited States Fish and Wildlife Service banned the import of Caspian Sea Beluga caviar to protect the endangered Beluga sturgeon; a month later, the ban was extended to include Beluga caviar from the entireBlack Sea basin. In January 2006, theConvention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) supported an international embargo on caviar export.[49] In January 2007, this ban was partly lifted, allowing the sale of 96 tons of caviar, 15% below the official 2005 level.[50] In July 2010, Russia and some otherCIS countries restarted the export of caviar.[51] The 2010 quotas allow for the export of three tons of beluga, 17 tons of sevruga and 27 tons of osetra.[51] In September 2010,Kazakhstan launched astate monopoly brand, Zhaik Balyk, from the Kazakh word for theUral River. Under the CITES agreement, Kazakhstan was granted the right to produce 13 of the 80 tons allowed up until 28 February 2011.[52]
Commercial caviar production historically involved stunning the fish and extracting theovaries. Another method of extracting caviar is by removing eggs through a small incision, which allows the female to continue producing roe.[53] Other farmers use a process called "stripping", which extracts the caviar from the fish via a small incision made along the urogenital muscle when the fish is deemed to be ready to be processed. An ultrasound is used to determine the correct timing.[54][55] Removing the caviar by massage may yield higher quality and a more sustainable source.[16]
Preparation follows a sequence that has not significantly changed over the last century. First, the ovaries are removed from a sedated female sturgeon and passed through a sieve to remove the membrane. Freed roes are rinsed to wash away impurities. Roes are now ready to become caviar by adding a precise amount of salt for taste and preservation. The fresh product is tasted and graded according to quality. Finally, the eggs are packed into lacquer-lined tins that will be further processed or sold directly to customers.[56]
A sturgeon caviar imitation is a black or red-colouredlumpsucker caviar sold throughout Europe in small glass jars.
InSweden andFinland, the roes of many fish species, includingvendace,burbot,salmon andcommon whitefish, are also commonly eaten in a similar manner as caviar. However, they are not caviar 'substitutes' but are enjoyed in their own right.
Spherification of liquids withalginate (aseaweed polysaccharide) is used to recreate caviar's texture. With liquids flavored to resemble caviar, one obtains kosher and vegan caviar substitutes. They resemble beluga caviar in appearance and are either used as a food prop for television and film or enjoyed by vegetarians and other people worldwide.[57][58]
InScandinavia, a type of sandwichspread is available, made fromsmokedcod roe and other ingredients, which is referred to assmörgåskaviar (meaning "sandwich caviar"). Outside Scandinavia, the product is referred to ascreamed smoked roe or in French asCaviar de Lysekil.
Caviar is highly perishable and must be kept refrigerated until consumption.[60] Proper storage is critical to maintaining caviar's freshness and flavor. After opening, caviar should be consumed within 2–3 days and kept in airtight glass or plastic containers to avoid flavor degradation caused by metal tins.[60][61][better source needed] To prolong shelf life, some recommend placing a layer of vegetable oil over the eggs to displace oxygen. Ideal storage temperature is around 32°F (0°C).[60][61] Freezing opened caviar negatively impacts texture and taste.[60][61]
^Fodor, Alexandrina, et al. "ASSESSMENT OF DEGREE OF FRESHNESS AND QUALITY OF PRODUCTS TYPE "FISH ROE" SOLD IN SUPERMARKET CHAIN STORES." Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxicologie, Zootehnie şi Tehnologii de Industrie Alimentară 10.A (2011): 177–181.
^Archivio di Stato di Roma, Commissariato Generale della Reverenda Camera Apostolica, busta 546, Controversia coi veneziani sulla pesca nel Po di Corbola
^Don Quixote II, Chapter LIV: "They also put down a black dainty called, they say, caviar, and made of the eggs of fish, a great thirst-wakener."
^Don Quijote de la Mancha II, capítulo LIV(in Spanish): "Pusieron asimismo un manjar negro que dicen que se llama cavial, y es hecho de huevos de pescados, gran despertador de la colambre."
Patterson, K. David (2000). "Russia". In Kiple, Kenneth F.; Ornelas, Kriemhild Coneè (eds.).The Cambridge World History of Food: Volume 1 and 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1240–1247.ISBN978-0521402163.
Talbot Rice, Tamara (1967).Everyday Life in Byzantium. London: Hippocrene Books.
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