There are varying beliefs about cattle in societies andreligions.
Cattle are considered sacred in theIndian religions ofHinduism,Jainism andBuddhism, as well as in someChinese folk religion and intraditional African religions. Cattle played other major roles in many religions, including those ofancient Egypt,ancient Greece,ancient Israel, andancient Rome.
In some regions, especially moststates of India, the slaughter of cattle is prohibited and their meat (beef) may betaboo.
Legislation against the slaughter of cattle is in place throughout most states of India exceptKerala and parts of theNorth-East.[1]
Hinduism specifically considers thezebu (Bos indicus) to be sacred.[2][3][4] Respect for the lives of animals including cattle,diet in Hinduism andvegetarianism in India are based on theHindu ethics. The Hindu ethics are driven by the core concept ofAhimsa, i.e. non-violence towards all beings, as mentioned in theChandogya Upanishad (~ 800 BCE).[5][6] By mid 1st millennium BCE, all three major religions – Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism – were championing non-violence as an ethical value, and something that impacted one's rebirth. By about 200 CE, food and feasting on animal slaughter were widely considered as a form of violence against life forms, and became a religious and social taboo.[7][8] India, which has79.80% Hindu population as of (2011 census),[9] had the lowest rate of meat consumption in the world according to the 2007UNFAO statistics,[10] and India has more vegetarians than the rest of the world put together.[11]
According to Ludwig Alsdorf, "Indian vegetarianism is unequivocally based onahimsa (non-violence)" as evidenced by ancientsmritis and other ancient texts of Hinduism." He adds that the endearment and respect for cattle in Hinduism is more than a commitment to vegetarianism and has become integral to its theology.[12] The respect for cattle is widespread but not universal. Animal sacrifices have been rare among the Hindus outside a few eastern states.[12][13] To the majority of modern Indians, states Alsdorf, respect for cattle and disrespect for slaughter is a part of their ethos and there is "noahimsa without renunciation of meat consumption".[12]
Thecow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure,[14] and Hindu society honors the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving,[14] selfless sacrifice, gentleness and tolerance.
Several scholars explain the veneration for cows among Hindus in economic terms, including the importance of dairy in the diet, the use of cow dung as fuel and fertilizer, and the importance that cattle have historically played in agriculture.[15] Ancient texts such asRig Veda,Puranas highlight the importance of cattle.[15] The scope, extent and status of cows throughout ancient India is a subject of debate. Cattle, including cows, were neither inviolable nor as revered in ancient times as they were later.[16] AGryhasutra recommends that beef be eaten by the mourners after a funeral ceremony as a ritual rite of passage.[17] In contrast, theVedic literature is contradictory, with some suggesting ritual slaughter and meat consumption, while others suggesting a taboo on meat eating.[7]
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Many ancient and medieval Hindu texts debate the rationale for a voluntary stop to cow slaughter and the pursuit ofvegetarianism as a part of a general abstention from violence against others and all killing of animals.[18][19]
The interdiction of the meat of the bounteous cow as food was regarded as the first step to total vegetarianism.[20] Dairy cows are calledaghnya "that which may not be slaughtered" in theRigveda.Yaska, the early commentator of the Rigveda, gives nine names for cow, the first being "aghnya".[21] The literature relating to cow veneration became common in 1st millennium CE, and by about 1000 CE vegetarianism, along with a taboo against beef, became a well accepted mainstream Hindu tradition.[7] This practice was inspired by the beliefs in Hinduism that a soul is present in all living beings, life in all its forms is interconnected, and non-violence towards all creatures is the highest ethical value.[7][8] The godKrishna and his Yadava kinsmen are associated with cows, adding to its endearment.[7][8]
The cow veneration in ancient India during the Vedic era, the religious texts written during this period called for non-violence towards all bipeds and quadrupeds, and often equated killing of a cow with the killing of a human being specifically aBrahmin.[22] The hymn 8.3.25 of the Hindu scriptureAtharvaveda (~1200–1500 BCE) condemns all killings of men, cattle, and horses, and prays to godAgni to punish those who kill.[23][24]
In thePuranas, which are part of theHindu texts, the earth-goddessPrithvi was in the form of a cow, successively milked of beneficent substances for the benefit of humans, by deities starting with the first sovereign:Prithu milked the cow to generate crops for humans to end a famine.[25]Kamadhenu, the miraculous "cow of plenty" and the "mother of cows" in certain versions of theHindu mythology, is believed to represent the generic sacred cow, regarded as the source of all prosperity.[26] In the 19th century, a form of Kamadhenu was depicted in poster-art that depicted all major gods and goddesses in it.[27][28]Govatsa Dwadashi, which marks the first day ofDiwali celebrations, is the main festival connected to the veneration and worship of cows as chief source of livelihood and religious sanctity in India, wherein the symbolism of motherhood is most apparent with the sacred cowsKamadhenu and her daughterNandini.[29]
The reverence for the cow played a role in theIndian Rebellion of 1857 againstCompany rule in India. Hindu and Muslimsepoys in thePresidency armies came to believe that theirpaper cartridges, which held a measured amount of gunpowder, were greased with cow and pig fat. The consumption of swine is forbidden inIslam andJudaism. Because loading the gun required biting off the end of the paper cartridge, they concluded that theEast India Company was forcing them to break edicts of their religion and eventually mutinied.[31]
A historical survey of major communal riots in India between 1717 and 1977 revealed that 22 out of 167 incidents ofrioting between Hindus and Muslims were attributable directly to cow slaughter.[32][33]
The cow protection was a symbol of animal rights and of non-violence against all life forms forGandhi. Hevenerated cows, and suggested ending cow slaughter to be the first step to stopping violence against all animals.[34] He said: "I worship it and I shall defend its worship against the whole world", and stated that "The central fact of Hinduism is cow protection."[34]
Jainism is against violence to all living beings, including cattle. According to the Jaina sutras, humans must avoid all killing and slaughter because all living beings are fond of life, they suffer, they feel pain, they like to live, and long to live. All beings should help each other live and prosper, according to Jainism, not kill and slaughter each other.[35][36]
In the Jain religious tradition, neither monks nor laypersons should cause others or allow others to work in aslaughterhouse.[37] Jains believe that vegetarian sources can provide adequate nutrition, without creating suffering for animals such as cattle.[37] According to some Jain scholars, slaughtering cattle increases ecological burden from human food demands since the production of meat entails intensified grain demands, and reducing cattle slaughter by 50 percent would free up enough land and ecological resources to solve all malnutrition and hunger worldwide. The Jain community leaders, states Christopher Chapple, have actively campaigned to stop all forms of animal slaughter including cattle.[38]
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In ancientMeitei mythology andfolklore ofAncient Manipur (Kangleipak),Kao is a divine cattle that plays a significant role in the legend of theKhamba Thoibi epic of ancientMoirang realm.Nongban Kongyamba, a nobleman, acting as anoracler, prophesied that calamities would arrive at the kingdom of Moirang, if the powerfulKao roaming freely in theKhuman kingdom, wasn't offered to GodThangjing (Old Manipuri:Thangching), the guardian deity ofMoirang. Spreading the rumour, Nongban choseKhamba, the orphanKhuman prince, on purpose to eliminate him, as the two were rivals. Before encountering the dangerous divine bull, Khamba's elder sisterKhamnu disclosed to Khamba the secrets of the bull, with whose help he succeeded in capturing the bull.[39][40][41]
The texts ofBuddhism stateahimsa to be one of fiveethical precepts, which requires a practicing Buddhist to "refrain from killing living beings".[42] Slaughtering cow has been a taboo, with some texts suggesting that taking care of a cow is a means of taking care of "all living beings". Cattle are seen in some Buddhist sects as a form of reborn human beings in the endless rebirth cycles insamsara, protecting animal life and being kind to cattle and other animals is goodkarma.[42][43] Not only do some, mainly Mahayana, Buddhist texts state that killing or eating meat is wrong, it urges Buddhist laypersons to not operate slaughterhouses, nor trade in meat.[44][45][46] Indian Buddhist texts encourage a plant-based diet.[8][7]
According to Saddhatissa, in theBrahmanadhammika Sutta, the Buddha "describes the ideal mode of life of Brahmins in the Golden Age" before him as follows:[47]
Like mother (they thought), father, brother or any other kind of kin,
cows are our kin most excellent from whom come many remedies.
Givers of good and strength, of good complexion and the happiness of health,
having seen the truth of this cattle they never killed.
Those Brahmins then by Dharma did what should be done, not what should not,
and so aware they graceful were, well-built, fair-skinned, of high renown.
While in the world this lore was found these people happily prospered.
Saving animals from slaughter for meat, is believed in Buddhism to be a way to acquire merit for better rebirth.[43] According to Richard Gombrich, there has been a gap between Buddhist precepts and practice. Vegetarianism is admired, states Gombrich, but often it is not practiced. Nevertheless, adds Gombrich, there is a general belief among Theravada Buddhists that eating beef is worse than other meat and the ownership of cattle slaughterhouses by Buddhists is relatively rare.[50][note 1]
Meat eating remains controversial within Buddhism, with mostTheravada sects allowing it, reflecting early Buddhist practice, and mostMahayana sects forbidding it. Earlysuttas indicate that the Buddha himself ate meat and was clear that no rule should be introduced to forbid meat eating to monks. The consumption, however, appears to have been limited to pork, chicken and fish and may well have excluded cattle.[52]
During the 1860s, theNamdhariSikhs opposed cattle-slaughter.[53][54] According to aKhalsa Bahadur (Lahore) article dated to 5 September 1903, the Sikhs consider cattle to be a useful animal but do not go to the lengths of the Hindus by considering it to be sacred.[55] According to Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair, many Sikhs refrain from eating beef as cows, oxen, and buffalo are a central part of the livelihood of rural Sikhs, with many Sikhs coming from agricultural-backgrounds.[56] Thus, Sikhs generally respect cattle and do not slaughter them for food.[56]
According toExodus 32:4, the Israelites worshipped a cult image of agolden calf when the prophetMoses went up toMount Sinai. Moses considered this a great offense against God. As a result of their abstention from the act, theLevite tribe attained a priestly role. A cult of golden calves re‑appears later, during the rule ofJeroboam.
According to theHebrew Bible, an unblemishedred cow was an important part of ancient Jewish rituals. The cow was sacrificed and burned in a precise ritual, and the ashes were added to water used in theritual purification of a person who had come in to contact with a human corpse. The ritual is described in theBook of Numbers in Chapter 19, verses 1–14.[57]
Observant Jews study this passage every year as part of theweekly Torah portion calledChukat. A contemporary Jewish organization called theTemple Institute is trying to revive this ancient religious observance.[58]
Traditional Judaism considers beefkosher and permissible as food,[59]as long as the cow is slaughtered in a religious ritual calledshechita, and the meat is not served in a meal thatincludes any dairy foods.[60]
Some Jews committed toJewish vegetarianism believe that Jews should refrain from slaughtering animals altogether[61]and have condemned widespread cruelty towards cattle on factory farms.[62]
Islam allows the slaughter of cows and consumption ofbeef, as long as the cow is slaughtered in a religious ritual calleddhabīḥah orzabihasimilar to the Jewishshechita.
Although slaughter of cattle plays a role in a major Muslim holiday,Eid al-Adha, many rulers of theMughal Empire had imposed a ban on the slaughter of cows owing to the large Hindu and Jain populations living under their rule.[63]
The second and longest surah of the Quran is namedAl-Baqara ("The Cow"). Out of the 286 verses of the surah, 7 mention cows (Al Baqarah 67–73).[64][65] The name of the surah derives from this passage in whichMoses orders his people to sacrifice a cow in order to resurrect a man murdered by an unknown person.[66] Per the passage, the "Children of Israel" quibbled over what kind of cow was meant when the sacrifice was ordered.[67]
While addressing to children of Israel, it was said:
And when We did appoint for Moses forty nights (of solitude), and then ye chose the calf, when he had gone from you, and were wrong-doers. Then, even after that, We pardoned you in order that ye might give thanks. And when We gave unto Moses the Scripture and the criterion (of right and wrong), that ye might be led aright. And when Moses said unto his people: O my people! Ye have wronged yourselves by your choosing of the calf (for worship) so turn in penitence to your Creator, and kill (the guilty) yourselves. That will be best for you with your Creator and He will relent toward you. Lo! He is the Relenting, the Merciful. (Al-Quran 2:51–54)
And when Moses said unto his people: Lo! God commandeth you that ye sacrifice a cow, they said: Dost thou make game of us ? He answered: God forbid that I should be among the foolish! They said: Pray for us unto thy Lord that He make clear to us what (cow) she is. (Moses) answered: Lo! He saith, Verily she is a cow neither with calf nor immature; (she is) between the two conditions; so do that which ye are commanded. They said: Pray for us unto thy Lord that He make clear to us of what colour she is. (Moses) answered: Lo! He saith: Verily she is a yellow cow. Bright is her colour, gladdening beholders. They said: Pray for us unto thy Lord that He make clear to us what (cow) she is. Lo! cows are much alike to us; and Lo! if God wills, we may be led aright. (Moses) answered: Lo! He saith: Verily she is a cow unyoked; she plougheth not the soil nor watereth the tilth; whole and without mark. They said: Now thou bringest the truth. So they sacrificed her, though almost they did not. And (remember) when ye slew a man and disagreed concerning it and God brought forth that which ye were hiding. And We said: Smite him with some of it. Thus God bringeth the dead to life and showeth you His portents so that ye may understand. (Al-Quran 2:67–73)
Classical Sunni and Shia commentators recount several variants of this tale. Per some of the commentators, though any cow would have been acceptable, but after they "created hardships for themselves" and the cow was finally specified, it was necessary to obtain it at any cost.[68]
Thered heifer or red cow is a particular kind of cow brought topriests forsacrifice in theHebrew Bible.Jews and someChristian fundamentalists believe that once a red heifer is born they will be able to rebuild theThird Temple on the Temple Mount inJerusalem.[citation needed]
Oxen are one of theanimals sacrificed byGreek Orthodox believers in some villages of Greece. It is specially associated to the feast of SaintCharalambos. This practice ofkourbania has been repeatedly criticized by church authorities.
The ox is the symbol ofLuke the Evangelist.
Among theVisigoths, the oxenpulling the wagon with the corpse ofSaint Emilian lead to the correct burial site (San Millán de la Cogolla, La Rioja).
The Zoroastrian termgeush urva means "the spirit of the cow"; it is interpreted as the soul of the Earth. In theAhunavaiti Gatha,Zoroaster accuses some of his co-religionists of abusing the cow[69] whereasAhura Mazda had told Zoroaster to protectthem[clarification needed]. After fleeing from Iran into India, many Zoroastrians stopped eating beef out of respect for the sensibilities of the Hindus they were living with.[69]
Cattle breeding was a principle occupation in the lands occupied byVedic priests and by Zoroaster.[70] The 9th chapter of theVendidad of theAvesta expounds the purificatory power of cow urine:[71] It is declared to be apanacea for all bodily and moral evils[71] and features prominently in the 9 night purification ritual calledBarashnûm.
Inancient Egyptian religion, bulls symbolized strength and male sexuality and were linked with aggressive deities such asMontu and virile deities such asMin. Some Egyptian cities keptsacred bulls that were said to be incarnations of divine powers, including theMnevis bull,Buchis bull, and theApis bull, which was regarded as a manifestation of the godPtah and was the most important sacred animal in Egypt. Cows were connected with fertility and motherhood. One of severalancient Egyptian creation myths said that a cow goddess,Mehet-Weret, who represented the primeval waters that existed before creation, gave birth to the sun at the beginning of time. The sky was sometimes envisioned as a goddess in the form of a cow, and several goddesses, includingHathor,Nut, andNeith, were equated with this celestial cow.[72]
The Egyptians did not regard cattle as uniformly positive. Wild bulls, regarded as symbols of the forces of chaos, could be hunted and ritually killed.[73]
As cattle were a central part of thepastoralist economy of Ancient Nubia,Africa, they also played a prominent role in their culture and mythology, as evidenced by their inclusion in burials androck art. Starting in the Neolithic period, cattle skulls, also known asbucrania, were often placed alongside human burials. Bucrania were a status symbol, and they were used frequently in adult male burials, occasionally in adult female burials, and rarely in child burials.[74] In cemeteries atKerma, there is a strong correlation between the number of bucrania and the quantity and lavishness of other grave goods.[75] Dozens if not hundreds of cattle were often slaughtered as tribute for the burial of one individual; 400 bucrania were found at one tumulus alone at Kerma.[76] The use of cattle skulls rather than those of sheep or goats reveals the importance of cattle in their pastoral economy, as well as the cultural associations of cattle with wealth, prosperity, and passage into the afterlife. Sometimes complete cattle were buried alongside their owner, symbolic of their relationship continuing into the afterlife.[77]
Beginning in the third millennium BCE, cattle became the most popular motif in Nubian rock art.[78] The bodies are usually depicted in profile, while the horns are facing forward. The length and shape of the horns and the pattern on the hide varied widely. Human silhouettes are often drawn alongside the cattle, symbolic of the important symbiotic relationship between cattle and humans. For pastoralists, drawing cattle may have also been a way to ensure the health of their herd. The role of cattle in Nubian mythology is more covert than inEgypt to the north, where several gods are often depicted as cattle; however, the significance of cattle in Nubian culture is evident in burial practices, understandings of the afterlife, and rock art.
InGreek mythology,the Cattle of Helios pastured on the island ofThrinacia, which is believed to be modernSicily.Helios, the sun god, is said to have had seven herds of oxen, and seven flocks of sheep, each numbering fifty head. Ahecatomb was a sacrifice of 100 cattle (hekaton means "one hundred") to the gods Apollo, Athena, Hera, or Zeus.
The Greek gods also transformed themselves or others into cattle for deception or punishment, such as in the myths ofIo andEuropa.In the myth ofPasiphaë, she "falls in love" with a bull as punishment byPoseidon, and consequently gives birth to theMinotaur, a violent human-bull hybrid.
In theancient Anatolian civilizationHatti, thestorm god was closely linked to a bull.[79]
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Tarvos Trigaranus (the "bull with three cranes") is pictured on ancientGaulish reliefs alongside images of gods. There is evidence that ancientCeltic peoples sacrificed animals, which were almost always cattle or other livestock.[80] Early medieval Irish texts mention thetarbfeis (bull feast), a shamanistic ritual in which a bull would be sacrificed and a seer would sleep in the bull's hide to have a vision of the future king.[81]
Cattle appear often inIrish mythology. TheGlas Gaibhnenn is a mythical prized cow that could produce plentiful supplies of milk, whileDonn Cuailnge andFinnbhennach are prized bulls that play a central role in the epicTáin Bó Cúailnge ("TheCattle Raid of Cooley"). The mythical ladyFlidais, the main figure in theTáin Bó Flidhais, owns a herd of magical cattle.[82] The name of the goddess of theRiver Boyne,Bóinn, comes fromArchaic Irish*Bóu-vinda meaning the "bright or white cow";[83] while the name of theCorcu Loígde means "tribe of the calf goddess".
InNorse mythology, the primeval cowAuðumbla suckledYmir, the ancestor of thefrost giants, and lickedBúri,Odin's grandfather and ancestor of thegods, out of the ice.
Today, inHindu-majority countries like India and Nepal, bovine milk holds a key part of religious rituals. For some, it is customary to boil milk on a stove or lead a cow through the house as part of a housewarming ceremony.[citation needed]
The Constitution of India mandates the protection of cows in India.[15] The slaughter of cattle is allowed with restrictions (like a 'fit-for-slaughter' certificate which may be issued depending on factors like age and gender of cattle, continued economic viability, etc.), but only for bulls and buffaloes and not cows in fourteen states. It is completely banned in six states with pending litigation in the supreme court to overturn the ban, while there is no restriction in many states.[84]
Gopastami, a holiday celebrated by theHindus once a year, is one of the few instances where cows receive prayers in modern-day India.[85] While the cow is still respected and honored by most of the Indian population, there has been controversy over the treatment of the cows during the holiday.
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In Nepal, a Hindu-majority country, slaughtering of cows and bulls is completely banned.[86] Cows are associated with the GoddessLakshmi (goddess of wealth and prosperity). The Nepalese have a festival calledTihar (Diwali) during which, on one day called Gaipuja, they perform prayers for cows.
According to aLodi News-Sentinel news story written in the 1960s, in then contemporaryNepal an individual could serve three months in jail for killing a pedestrian, but one year for injuring a cow, and life imprisonment for killing a cow.[87][better source needed]
Cows roam freely and are sacred. Buffalo slaughtering was done in Nepalat specific Hindu events, such as at theGadhimai festival, last held in 2014.[88][89] In 2015, Nepal's temple trust on announced to cancel all future animal sacrifice at the country's Gadhimai festival.[90]
The beef taboo is fairly widespread in Myanmar, particularly in the Buddhist community. In Myanmar, beef is typically obtained from cattle that are slaughtered at the end of their working lives (16 years of age) or from sick animals.[91] Cattle is rarely raised for meat; 58% of cattle in the country is used for draught animal power (DAP).[91] Few people eat beef, and there is a general dislike of beef (especially among theBamar andBurmese Chinese),[92][93] although it is more commonly eaten in regional cuisines, particularly those of ethnic minorities like theKachin.[94] Buddhists, when giving up meat during the Buddhist (Vassa) orUposatha days, will forego beef first.[95] Almost all butchers are Muslim because of the Buddhist doctrine ofahimsa (no harm).[96]
During the country's last dynasty, theKonbaung dynasty, habitual consumption of beef was punishable by publicflogging.[97]
In 1885,Ledi Sayadaw, a prominentBuddhist monk wrote theNwa-myitta-sa (နွားမေတ္တာစာ), a poetic prose letter that argued that Burmese Buddhists should not kill cattle and eat beef, because Burmese farmers depended on them as beasts of burden to maintain their livelihoods, that the marketing of beef for human consumption threatened the extinction of buffalo and cattle, and that the practice was ecologically unsound.[98] He subsequently led successful beef boycotts during the colonial era, despite the presence of beef eating among locals, and influenced a generation of Burmese nationalists in adopting this stance.[98]
On 29 August 1961, theBurmese Parliament passed the State Religion Promotion Act of 1961, which explicitly banned the slaughtering of cattle nationwide (beef became known astodo tha (တိုးတိုးသား); lit. hush hush meat).[99] Religious groups, such as Muslims, were required to apply for exemption licenses to slaughter cattle on religious holidays. This ban was repealed a year later, afterNe Win led acoup d'état and declared martial law in the country.
InSri Lanka, in May 2013, 30-year-old Buddhist monk Bowatte Indrarathana Thera of the Sri Sugatha Purana Vihara self immolated to protest the government allowing religious minorities to slaughter cows.[100]
A beef taboo inancient China was historically a dietary restriction, particularly among theHan Chinese, as oxen and buffalo (bovines) are useful in farming and are respected.[101] During theZhou dynasty, they were not often eaten, even by emperors.[102] Some emperors banned killing cows.[103][104] Beef is not recommended inChinese medicine, as it is considered a hot food and is thought to disrupt the body's internal balance.[105]
In written sources (including anecdotes and Daoist liturgical texts), this taboo first appeared in the 9th to 12th centuries (Tang-Song transition, with the advent of pork meat.[106]) By the 16th to 17th centuries, the beef taboo had become well accepted in the framework of Chinese morality and was found in morality books (善書), with several books dedicated exclusively to this taboo.[106] The beef taboo came from a Chinese perspective that relates the respect for animal life and vegetarianism (ideas shared byBuddhism,Confucianism, andDaoism, and state protection for draught animals.[106]) In Chinese society, only ethnic and religious groups not fully assimilated (such as the MuslimHuis and theMiao) and foreigners consumed this meat.[106] This taboo, among Han Chinese, ledChinese Muslims to create a niche for themselves as butchers who specialized in slaughtering oxen and buffalo.[107]
Occasionally, some cows seenweeping before slaughter are often released to temples nearby.[108][109]
Due to water buffalo being the primary working animal for farming, beef consumption was generally considered a taboo in early 20th century. This gradually changed withJapanese rule, theretreat of the Republic of China to Taiwan, the mechanization of farming, and the economy transitioning away from farming. Most Taiwanese people today consume beef, although some have maintained the tradition.[110]
Historically, there was a beef taboo inancient Japan, as a means of protecting the livestock population and due to Buddhist influence.[111] Meat-eating had long been taboo in Japan, beginning with a decree in 675 that banned the consumption of cattle, horses, dogs, monkeys, and chickens, influenced by the Buddhist prohibition of killing.[112] In 1612, the shōgun declared a decree that specifically banned the killing of cattle.[112]
This official prohibition was in place until 1872, when it was officially proclaimed thatEmperor Meiji consumed beef and mutton, which transformed the country's dietary considerations as a means of modernizing the country, particularly with regard to consumption of beef.[112] With contact from Europeans, beef increasingly became popular, even though it had previously been considered barbaric.[111]
Several shrines and temples are decorated with cow figurines, which are believed to cure illnesses when stroked.
InKudus, Indonesia,Muslims still maintain the tradition of not slaughtering or eating cows, out of respect for their ancestors, some of who wereHindus, allegedly imitatingSunan Kudus who also did as such.
In religiously diverse countries, leather vendors are typically careful to clarify the kinds of leather used in their products. For example, leather shoes will bear a label identifying the animal from which the leather was taken. In this way, aMuslim would not accidentally purchasepigskin leather,[113] and aHindu could avoidcow leather. Many Hindus who are vegetarians will not use any kind of leather.
Judaism forbids the wearing of shoes made with leather onYom Kippur,Tisha B'Av, and during mourning.[114]
Jainism prohibits the use of leather because it is obtained by killing cattle.
...India has more vegetarians than everywhere else in the world combined.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)What he meant to say was that the Sikhs were not quite so sensitive as the Hindus in regard to the slaughter of cows. For instance, the latter would not even eat certain vegetables the names of which being withgaf, the first letter ingai (cow). In the same way some of them abstain from the use ofmasur pulse because it is the colour of blood. They also regard cow-dung and cow urine as sacred. The Sikhs, on the contrary, do not go to such lengths in their reverence for this animal, although they agree with the Hindus in considering it a very useful one.
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