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Christian mysticism is the tradition ofmystical practices andmystical theology withinChristianity which "concerns the preparation [of the person] for, the consciousness of, and the effect of [...] a direct and transformative presence ofGod"[1] ordivinelove.[2] Until the sixth century the practice of what is now called mysticism was referred to by the termcontemplatio, c.q.theoria, fromcontemplatio (Latin;Greekθεωρία,theoria),[3] "looking at", "gazing at", "being aware of" God or the divine.[4][5][6] Christianity took up the use of both the Greek (theoria) and Latin (contemplatio, contemplation) terminology to describe various forms of prayer and the process of coming to know God.
Contemplative practices range from simple prayerful meditation of holy scripture (i.e.Lectio Divina) tocontemplation on the presence of God, resulting intheosis (spiritual union with God) andecstatic visions of the soul'smystical union with God. Three stages are discerned in contemplative practice, namely catharsis (purification),[7][8] contemplation proper, and the vision of God.
Contemplative practices have a prominent place inEastern Orthodoxy andOriental Orthodoxy, and have gained a renewed interest in Western Christianity.
TheGreektheoria (θεωρία) meant "contemplation, speculation, a looking at, things looked at", fromtheorein (θεωρεῖν) "to consider, speculate, look at", fromtheoros (θεωρός) "spectator", fromthea (θέα) "a view" +horan (ὁρᾶν) "to see".[9] It expressed the state of being aspectator. Both Greekθεωρία and Latincontemplatio primarily meant looking at things, whether with the eyes or with the mind.[10]
According to William Johnston, until the sixth century the practice of what is now calledmysticism was referred to by the termcontemplatio, c.q.theoria.[4] According to Johnston, "[b]oth contemplation and mysticism speak of the eye of love which is looking at, gazing at, aware of divine realities."[4]
Several scholars have demonstrated similarities between the Greek idea oftheoria and theIndian idea ofdarśana (darshan), including Ian Rutherford[11] and Gregory Grieve.[12]
"Mysticism" is derived from theGreek μύω, meaning "to conceal,"[13] and its derivativeμυστικός,mystikos, meaning "an initiate." In the Hellenistic world, a "mystikos" was an initiate of amystery religion. "Mystical" referred to secret religious rituals[14] and use of the word lacked any direct references to the transcendental.[15]
In early Christianity the termmystikos referred to three dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the biblical, the liturgical and the spiritual or contemplative.[16] The biblical dimension refers to "hidden" orallegorical interpretations of Scriptures.[14][16] The liturgical dimension refers to the liturgical mystery of theEucharist, the presence of Christ at the Eucharist.[14][16] The third dimension is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God.[16]
Bernard McGinn defines Christian mysticism as:
[T]hat part, or element, of Christian belief and practice that concerns the preparation for, the consciousness of, and the effect of [...] a direct and transformative presence of God.[1]
McGinn argues that "presence" is more accurate than "union," since not all mystics spoke of union with God, and since many visions and miracles were not necessarily related to union.[1]
McGinn also argues that we should speak of "consciousness" of God's presence, rather than of "experience", since mystical activity is not simply about the sensation of God as an external object, but more broadly about
...new ways of knowing and loving based on states of awareness in which God becomes present in our inner acts.[1]
William James popularized the use of the term "religious experience" in his 1902 bookThe Varieties of Religious Experience.[17] It has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as a distinctive experience which supplies knowledge.[14]
Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of religious experience further back to the German theologianFriedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), who argued that religion is based on a feeling of the infinite. The notion of religious experience was used by Schleiermacher to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique. It was adopted by many scholars of religion, of which William James was the most influential.[18]
McGinn's emphasis on the transformation that occurs through mystical activity relates to this idea of "presence" instead of "experience":
This is why the only test that Christianity has known for determining the authenticity of a mystic and her or his message has been that of personal transformation, both on the mystic's part and—especially—on the part of those whom the mystic has affected.[1]
Parsons points out that the stress on "experience" is accompanied by favoring the atomic individual, instead of the shared life of the community. It also fails to distinguish between episodic experience, and mysticism as a process that is embedded in a total religious matrix of liturgy, scripture, worship, virtues, theology, rituals and practices.[19]
Richard King also points to disjunction between "mystical experience" and social justice:[20]
The privatisation of mysticism – that is, the increasing tendency to locate the mystical in the psychological realm of personal experiences – serves to exclude it from political issues as social justice. Mysticism thus becomes seen as a personal matter of cultivating inner states of tranquility and equanimity, which, rather than seeking to transform the world, serve to accommodate the individual to the status quo through the alleviation of anxiety and stress.[20]
Mystical experience is not simply a matter between the mystic and God, but is often shaped by cultural issues. For instance,Caroline Bynum has shown how, in the late Middle Ages, miracles attending the taking of the Eucharist were not simply symbolic of thePassion story, but served as vindication of the mystic's theologicalorthodoxy by proving that the mystic had not fallen prey to heretical ideas, such as theCathar rejection of the material world as evil, contrary to orthodox teaching thatGod took on human flesh and remained sinless.[21] Thus, the nature of mystical experience could be tailored to the particular cultural and theological issues of the time.
The idea of mystical realities has been widely held in Christianity since the second century AD, referring not simply to spiritual practices, but also to the belief that their rituals and even their scriptures have hidden ("mystical") meanings.[1]
The link between mysticism and the vision of the divine was introduced by the earlyChurch Fathers, who used the term as an adjective, as in mystical theology and mystical contemplation.[15]
In subsequent centuries, especially asChristian apologetics began to use Greek philosophy to explain Christian ideas,Neoplatonism became an influence on Christian mystical thought and practice via such authors asAugustine of Hippo andOrigen.[22]
Jewish spirituality in the period before Jesus was highly corporate and public, based mostly on the worship services of the synagogues, which included the reading and interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures and the recitation of prayers, and on the major festivals. Thus, private spirituality was strongly influenced by the liturgies and by the scriptures (e.g., the use of the Psalms for prayer), and individual prayers often recalled historical events just as much as they recalled their own immediate needs.[23]
Of special importance are the following concepts:
In Christian mysticism,Shekhinah becamemystery,Da'at (knowledge) becamegnosis, and poverty became an important component ofmonasticism.[24]
The termtheoria was used by the ancient Greeks to refer to the act of experiencing or observing, and then comprehending throughnous.[citation needed]
The influences of Greek thought are apparent in the earliest Christian mystics and their writings.Plato (428–348 BC) is considered the most important of ancient philosophers, and his philosophical system provides the basis of most later mystical forms.Plotinus (c. 205 – 270 AD) provided the non-Christian,neo-Platonic basis for much Christian,Jewish andIslamic mysticism.[25]
ForPlato, what the contemplative (theoros) contemplates (theorei) are theForms, the realities underlying the individual appearances, and one who contemplates these atemporal and aspatial realities is enriched with a perspective on ordinary things superior to that of ordinary people.[26]Philip of Opus viewedtheoria as contemplation of the stars, with practical effects in everyday life similar to those that Plato saw as following from contemplation of the Forms.[26]
In theEnneads ofPlotinus (c.204/5–270 CE), a founder ofNeoplatonism, everything is contemplation (theoria)[27] and everything is derived from contemplation.[28] The first hypostasis, the One, is contemplation[29][30] (by the nous, or second hypostasis)[failed verification] in that "it turns to itself in the simplest regard, implying no complexity or need"; this reflecting back on itself emanated (not created)[failed verification] the second hypostasis, Intellect (in Greek Νοῦς,Nous), Plotinus describes as "living contemplation", being "self-reflective and contemplative activity par excellence", and the third hypostatic level hastheoria.[31] Knowledge of the one is achieved through experience of its power, an experience that is contemplation (theoria) of the source of all things.[32]
Plotinus agreed with Aristotle's systematic distinction between contemplation (theoria) and practice (praxis): dedication to the superior life oftheoria requires abstention from practical, active life. Plotinus explained: "The point of action is contemplation. ... Contemplation is therefore the end of action" and "Such is the life of the divinity and of divine and blessed men: detachments from all things here below, scorn of all earthly pleasures, the flight of the lone to the Alone."[33]
The Christian scriptures, insofar as they are the founding narrative of the Christian church, provide many key stories and concepts that become important for Christian mystics in all later generations: practices such as theEucharist,baptism and theLord's Prayer all become activities that take on importance for both their ritual and symbolic values. Other scriptural narratives present scenes that become the focus of meditation: thecrucifixion of Jesus and his appearances after hisresurrection are two of the most central to Christian theology; but Jesus' conception, in which theHoly Spirit overshadows Mary, and histransfiguration, in which he is briefly revealed in his heavenly glory, also become important images for meditation. Moreover, many of the Christian texts build on Jewish spiritual foundations, such aschokmah,shekhinah.[34]
But different writers present different images and ideas. TheSynoptic Gospels (in spite of their many differences) introduce several important ideas, two of which are related to Greco-Judaic notions of knowledge/gnosis by virtue of being mental acts: purity of heart, in which we will to see in God's light; andrepentance, which involves allowing God to judge and then transform us. Another key idea presented by the Synoptics is the desert, which is used as a metaphor for the place where we meet God in the poverty of our spirit.[35]
TheGospel of John focuses on God's glory in his use of light imagery and in his presentation of the cross as a moment of exaltation; he also sees the cross as the example ofagape love, a love which is not so much an emotion as a willingness to serve and care for others. But in stressing love, John shifts the goal of spiritual growth away from knowledge/gnosis, which he presents more in terms ofStoic ideas about the role of reason as being the underlying principle of the universe and as the spiritual principle within all people. Although John does not follow up on the Stoic notion that this principle makes union with the divine possible for humanity, it is an idea that later Christian writers develop. Later generations will also shift back and forth between whether to follow the Synoptics in stressing knowledge or John in stressing love.[36]
In his letters,Paul also focuses on mental activities, but not in the same way as the Synoptics, which equate renewing the mind with repentance. Instead, Paul sees the renewal of our minds as happening as we contemplate what Jesus did on the cross, which then opens us to grace and to the movement of theHoly Spirit into peoples' hearts. Like John, Paul is less interested in knowledge, preferring to emphasize the hiddenness, the "mystery" of God's plan as revealed through Christ. But Paul's discussion of the Cross differs from John's in being less about how it reveals God's glory and more about how it becomes the stumbling block that turns our minds back to God. Paul also describes the Christian life as that of an athlete, demanding practice and training for the sake of the prize; later writers will see in this image a call toascetical practices.[37]
The texts attributed to theApostolic Fathers, the earliest post-Biblical texts we have, share several key themes, particularly the call to unity in the face of internal divisions and perceptions of persecution, the reality of thecharisms, especially prophecy, visions, and Christiangnosis, which is understood as "a gift of the Holy Spirit that enables us to know Christ" through meditating on the scriptures and on the cross of Christ.[38] (This understanding ofgnosis is not the same as that developed by theGnostics, who focused onesoteric knowledge that is available only to a few people but that allows them to free themselves from the evil world.[39][40]) These authors also discuss the notion of the "two ways", that is, the way of life and the way of death; this idea has biblical roots, being found in both theSermon on the Mount and theTorah. The two ways are then related to the notion of purity of heart, which is developed by contrasting it against the divided or duplicitous heart and by linking it to the need for asceticism, which keeps the heart whole/pure.[41][42] Purity of heart was especially important given perceptions of martyrdom, which many writers discussed in theological terms, seeing it not as an evil but as an opportunity to truly die for the sake of God—the ultimate example of ascetic practice.[43] Martyrdom could also be seen as symbolic in its connections with the Eucharist and with baptism.[44]
Theoria enabled the Fathers to perceive depths of meaning in the biblical writings that escape a purely scientific or empirical approach to interpretation.[45] The Antiochene Fathers, in particular, saw in every passage of Scripture a double meaning, both literal and spiritual.[46][note 1] AsFrances Margaret Young notes, "Best translated in this context as a type of "insight",theoria was the act of perceiving in the wording and "story" of Scripture a moral and spiritual meaning,"[48] and may be regarded as a form of allegory.[49]
The Alexandrian contribution to Christian mysticism centers onOrigen (c. 185 – c. 253) andClement of Alexandria (150–215 AD). Clement was an earlyChristian humanist who argued that reason is the most important aspect of human existence and thatgnosis (not something we can attain by ourselves, but the gift of Christ) helps us find the spiritual realities that are hidden behind the natural world and within the scriptures. Given the importance of reason, Clement stressesapatheia as a reasonable ordering of our passions in order to live within God's love, which is seen as a form of truth.[50] Origen, who had a lasting influence on Eastern Christian thought, further develops the idea that the spiritual realities can be found through allegorical readings of the scriptures (along the lines of Jewishaggadah tradition), but he focuses his attention on the cross and on the importance of imitating Christ through the cross, especially through spiritual combat and asceticism. Origen stresses the importance of combining intellect and virtue (theoria andpraxis) in our spiritual exercises, drawing on the image ofMoses andAaron leading the Israelites through the wilderness, and he describes our union with God as the marriage of our souls with Christ theLogos, using the wedding imagery from theSong of Songs.[51] Alexandrian mysticism developed alongsideHermeticism andNeoplatonism and therefore share some of the same ideas, images, etc. in spite of their differences.[52]
Philo of Alexandria (20 BCE – c. 50 CE) was a JewishHellenistic philosopher who was important for connecting the Hebrew Scriptures to Greek thought, and thereby to Greek Christians, who struggled to understand their connection to Jewish history. In particular, Philo taught thatallegorical interpretations of the Hebrew scriptures provides access to the real meanings of the texts. Philo also taught the need to bring together the contemplative focus of theStoics andEssenes with the active lives of virtue and community worship found inPlatonism and theTherapeutae. Using terms reminiscent of the Platonists, Philo described the intellectual component of faith as a sort of spiritual ecstasy in which ournous (mind) is suspended and God's spirit takes its place. Philo's ideas influenced theAlexandrian Christians,Clement, andOrigen, and through them,Gregory of Nyssa.[53]
Inspired by Christ's teaching and example,men andwomen withdrew to the deserts ofSketes where, either as solitary individuals or communities, they lived lives of austere simplicity oriented towards contemplative prayer. These communities formed the basis for what later would become known asChristian monasticism.[54]
The Eastern church then saw the development ofmonasticism and the mystical contributions ofGregory of Nyssa,Evagrius Ponticus, andPseudo-Dionysius. Monasticism, also known asanchoritism (meaning "to withdraw") was seen as an alternative to martyrdom, and was less about escaping the world than about fighting demons (who were thought to live in the desert) and about gaining liberation from our bodily passions in order to be open to the word of God. Anchorites practiced continuous meditation on the scriptures as a means of climbing the ladder of perfection—a common religious image in the Mediterranean world and one found in Christianity through the story ofJacob's ladder—and sought to fend off the demon ofacedia ("un-caring"), a boredom or apathy that prevents us from continuing on in our spiritual training. Anchorites could live in total solitude ("hermits", from the worderēmitēs, "of the desert") or in loose communities ("cenobites", meaning "common life").[55]
Monasticism eventually made its way to the West and was established by the work ofJohn Cassian andBenedict of Nursia. Meanwhile, Western spiritual writing was deeply influenced by the works of such men asJerome andAugustine of Hippo.[56]
Neo-Platonism has had a profound influence on Christian contemplative traditions. Neoplatonic ideas were adopted by Christianity,[note 2] among them the idea oftheoria or contemplation, taken over byGregory of Nyssa for example.[note 3] TheBrill Dictionary of Gregory of Nyssa remarks that contemplation in Gregory is described as a "loving contemplation",[59] and, according toThomas Keating, the Greek Fathers of the Church, in taking over from the Neoplatonists the wordtheoria, attached to it the idea expressed by the Hebrew wordda'ath, which, though usually translated as "knowledge", is a much stronger term, since it indicates the experiential knowledge that comes with love and that involves the whole person, not merely the mind.[60] Among the Greek Fathers, Christiantheoria was not contemplation of Platonic Ideas nor of the astronomical heavens of Pontic Heraclitus, but "studying the Scriptures", with an emphasis on the spiritual sense.[10]
Later, contemplation came to be distinguished from intellectual life, leading to the identification of θεωρία orcontemplatio with a form of prayer[10] distinguished from discursivemeditation in both East[61] and West.[62] Some make a further distinction, within contemplation, between contemplation acquired by human effort and infused contemplation.[62][63]
In early Christianity the term "mystikos" referred to three dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the biblical, the liturgical and the spiritual or contemplative.[64] The biblical dimension refers to "hidden" or allegorical interpretations of Scriptures.[65][64] The liturgical dimension refers to the liturgical mystery of the Eucharist, the presence of Christ at the Eucharist.[65][64] The third dimension is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God.[64]
The 9th century saw the development ofmystical theology through the introduction of the works of sixth-century theologianPseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, such asOn Mystical Theology. His discussion of thevia negativa was especially influential.[66]
Under the influence ofPseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (late 5th to early 6th century) themystical theology came to denote the investigation of the allegorical truth of the Bible,[64] and "the spiritual awareness of the ineffable Absolute beyond the theology of divine names."[67] Pseudo-Dionysius'apophatic theology, or "negative theology", exerted a great influence on medieval monastic religiosity.[68] It was influenced byNeo-Platonism, and very influential inEastern Orthodox Christian theology. In western Christianity it was a counter-current to the prevailingCataphatic theology or "positive theology".
Within theistic mysticism two broad tendencies can be identified. One is a tendency to understand God by asserting what he is and the other by asserting what he is not. The former leads to what is calledcataphatic theology and the latter toapophatic theology.
Urban T. Holmes III categorized mystical theology in terms of whether it focuses on illuminating the mind, which Holmes refers to as speculative practice, or the heart/emotions, which he calls affective practice. Combining the speculative/affective scale with the apophatic/cataphatic scale allows for a range of categories:[70]
In discursive meditation, such asLectio Divina, mind and imagination and other faculties are actively employed in an effort to understand Christians' relationship withGod.[71][72] In contemplative prayer, this activity is curtailed, so thatcontemplation has been described as "a gaze of faith", "a silent love".[note 4] There is no clear-cut boundary between Christian meditation and Christian contemplation, and they sometimes overlap. Meditation serves as a foundation on which the contemplative life stands, the practice by which someone begins the state of contemplation.[73]
John of the Cross described the difference between discursive meditation and contemplation by saying:
The difference between these two conditions of the soul is like the difference between working, and enjoyment of the fruit of our work; between receiving a gift, and profiting by it; between the toil of travelling and the rest of our journey's end".[74][75]
Mattá al-Miskīn, anOriental Orthodox monk has posited:
Meditation is an activity of one's spirit by reading or otherwise, while contemplation is a spontaneous activity of that spirit. In meditation, man's imaginative and thinking power exert some effort. Contemplation then follows to relieve man of all effort. Contemplation is the soul's inward vision and the heart's simple repose in God.[73]
According to the standard formulation of the process ofChristian perfection, going back toEvagrius Ponticus (345–399 AD)[76] andDionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite (late 5th to early 6th century),[77][78] there are three stages:[79][62][78]
The three aspects later becamepurgative, illuminative, and unitive in the western churches and prayer of the lips, the mind, the heart in the eastern churches.[76]
Purification and illumination of the mind are preparations for the vision of God. Without these preparations it is impossible for man's selfish love to be transformed into selfless love. This transformation takes place during the higher level of the stage of illumination called theoria, literally meaning vision, in this case visionby means of unceasing and uninterrupted memory of God. Those who remain selfish and self-centered with a hardened heart, closed to God's love, will not see the glory of God in this life. However, they will see God's glory eventually, but as an eternal and consuming fire and outer darkness.[80]
In the Orthodox Churches, theosis results from leading a pure life, practicing restraint and adhering to the commandments, putting the love of God before all else. This metamorphosis (transfiguration) or transformation results from a deep love of God. SaintIsaac the Syrian says in hisAscetical Homilies that "Paradise is the love of God, in which the bliss of all the beatitudes is contained," and that "thetree of life is the love of God" (Homily 72).Theoria is thus achieved by the pure of heart who are no longer subject to the afflictions of the passions. It is a gift from the Holy Spirit to those who, through observance of the commandments of God andascetic practices (seepraxis,kenosis,Poustinia andschema), have achieved dispassion.[note 5]
Purification constitutes a turning away from all that is unclean and unwholesome. This is a purification of mind and body. As preparation fortheoria, however, the concept of purification in this three-part scheme refers most importantly to the purification of consciousness (nous), the faculty of discernment and knowledge (wisdom), whose awakening is essential to coming out of the state of delusion that is characteristic of the worldly-minded. After thenous has been cleansed, the faculty of wisdom may then begin to operate more consistently. With a purifiednous, clear vision and understanding become possible, making one fit for contemplative prayer.[citation needed]
In the Eastern Orthodox ascetic tradition calledhesychasm, humility, as a saintly attribute, is calledholy wisdom orSophia. Humility is the most critical component to humanity's salvation.[note 6] Following Christ's instruction to "go into your room or closet and shut the door and pray to your father who is in secret" (Matthew 6:6), thehesychast withdraws into solitude in order that he or she may enter into a deeper state of contemplative stillness. By means of this stillness, the mind is calmed, and the ability to see reality is enhanced. The practitioner seeks to attain what theapostle Paul called 'unceasing prayer'.
Some Eastern Orthodox theologians object to what they consider an overly speculative, rationalistic, and insufficiently experiential nature ofRoman Catholic theology.[note 7] and confusion between different aspects of the Trinity.[note 8]
An exercise long used among Christians for acquiring contemplation, one that is "available to everyone, whether he be of the clergy or of any secular occupation",[85] is that of focusing the mind by constant repetition of a phrase or word. SaintJohn Cassian recommended using the phrase "O God, make speed to save me: O Lord, make haste to help me".[86][87] Another formula for repetition is the name of Jesus,[88][89] or theJesus Prayer: "Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner," which has been called "themantra of the Orthodox Church",[87] although the term "Jesus Prayer" is not found in the writings of the Fathers of the Church.[90] The author ofThe Cloud of Unknowing recommended use of a monosyllabic word, such as "God" or "Love".[91]
In the Eastern Church, noetic prayer is the first stage oftheoria,[92][note 9] the vision of God, which is beyond conceptual knowledge,[93] like the difference between reading about the experience of another, and reading about one's own experience.[81] Noetic prayer is the first stage of theJesus Prayer, a short formulaicprayer: "Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner."[citation needed] The second stage of the Jesus Prayer is thePrayer of the Heart (Καρδιακή Προσευχή), in which the prayer is internalized into 'the heart'.[94]
The Jesus Prayer, which, for the early Fathers, was just a training for repose,[95] the later Byzantines developed intohesychasm, a spiritual practice of its own, attaching to it technical requirements and various stipulations that became a matter of serious theological controversy.[95] Via the Jesus Prayer, the practice of the Hesychast is seen to cultivatenepsis, watchful attention. Sobriety contributes to this mental asceticism that rejects tempting thoughts; it puts a great emphasis on focus and attention. The practitioner of the hesychast is to pay extreme attention to the consciousness of his inner world and to the words of the Jesus Prayer, not letting his mind wander in any way at all. The Jesus Prayer invokes an attitude of humility believed to be essential for the attainment oftheoria.[96] The Jesus Prayer is also invoked to pacify the passions, as well as the illusions that lead a person to actively express these passions. It is believed that the worldly, neurotic mind is habitually accustomed to seek pleasant sensations and to avoid unpleasant ones. This state of incessant agitation is attributed to the corruption of primordial knowledge and union with God (thefall of man and the defilement and corruption of consciousness, ornous).[note 10] According to St.Theophan the Recluse, though the Jesus Prayer has long been associated with the Prayer of the Heart, they are not synonymous.[98]
Methods of prayer in the Roman Catholic Church include recitation of theJesus Prayer, which "combines the Christological hymn ofPhilippians 2:6–11 with the cry of the publican (Luke 18:13) and the blind man begging for light (Mark 10:46–52). By it the heart is opened to human wretchedness and the Saviour's mercy";[99] invocation of the holy name of Jesus;[99] recitation, as recommended by SaintJohn Cassian, of "O God, come to my assistance; O Lord, make haste to help me" or other verses of Scripture; repetition of a single monosyllabic word, as suggested by theCloud of Unknowing, such as "God" or "Love";[91] the method used incentering prayer; the use ofLectio Divina.[100] TheCongregation for Divine Worship's directory of popular piety and the liturgy emphasizes the contemplative characteristic of theHoly Rosary and states that the Rosary is essentially a contemplative prayer which requires "tranquility of rhythm or even a mental lingering which encourages the faithful to meditate on the mysteries of the Lord's life."[101]Pope John Paul II placed the Rosary at the very center of Christian spirituality and called it "among the finest and most praiseworthy traditions of Christian contemplation."[102]In modern times,centering prayer, which is also called "Prayer of the heart" and "Prayer of Simplicity,"[note 11] has been popularized byThomas Keating, drawing on Hesychasm and theCloud of Unknowing.[note 12] The practice of contemplative prayer has also been encouraged by the formation of associations likeThe Julian Meetings and theFellowship of Meditation.
The third phase, starting with infused or higher contemplation (or Mystical Contemplative Prayer[104]) in the Western tradition, refers to the presence or consciousness of God. This presence or consciousness varies, but it is first and foremost always associated with a reuniting with divinelove, the underlying theme being that God, the perfect goodness,[2] is known or experienced at least as much by the heart as by the intellect since, in the words1 John 4:16: "God is love, and he who abides in love abides in God and God in him." Some approaches to classical mysticism would consider the first two phases as preparatory to the third, explicitly mystical experience, but others state that these three phases overlap and intertwine.[105]
In the Orthodox Churches, the highest theoria, the highest consciousness that can be experienced by the whole person, is the vision of God.[note 13] God is beyond being; He is a hyper-being; God is beyond nothingness. Nothingness is a gulf between God and man. God is the origin of everything, including nothingness. This experience of God in hypostasis shows God's essence as incomprehensible, or uncreated. God is the origin, but has no origin; hence, he isapophatic andtranscendent inessence or being, andcataphatic infoundational realities,immanence andenergies. Thisontic orontological theoria is the observation of God.[106]
A nous in a state of ecstasy or ekstasis, called the eighth day, is not internal or external to the world, outside of time and space; it experiences theinfinite and limitless God.[note 5][note 14]Nous is the "eye of the soul" (Matthew 6:22–34).[note 15] Insight into being and becoming (callednoesis) through the intuitive truth called faith, in God (action through faith andlove for God), leads to truth through our contemplative faculties. Thistheory, or speculation, as action in faith and love for God, is then expressed famously as "Beauty shall Save the World". This expression comes from amystical orgnosiological perspective, rather than a scientific, philosophical or cultural one.[109][110][111][112]
In the advance to contemplationAugustine spoke of seven stages:[113]
Meister Eckhart did not articulate clear-cut stages,[114] yet a number of divisions can be found in his works.[115]
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According to Jordan Aumann, SaintTeresa of Ávila distinguishes nine grades of prayer:
According to Aumann, "The first four grades belong to the predominantly ascetical stage of spiritual life; the remaining five grades are infused prayer and belong to the mystical phase of spiritual life."[116] According to Augustin Pulain, for Teresa, ordinary prayer "comprises these four degrees: first, vocal prayer; second, meditation, also called methodical prayer, or prayer of reflection, in which may be included meditative reading; third, affective prayer; fourth, prayer of simplicity, or of simple gaze."[62]
For Teresa, in natural or acquired contemplation, also called the prayer of simplicity[note 11] there is one dominant thought or sentiment which recurs constantly and easily (although with little or no development) amid many other thoughts, beneficial or otherwise. The prayer of simplicity often has a tendency to simplify itself even in respect to its object, leading one to think chiefly of God and of his presence, but in a confused manner.[62] Definitions similar to that of Saint Alphonsus Maria de Liguori are given by Adolphe Tanquerey ("a simple gaze on God and divine things proceeding from love and tending thereto") and SaintFrancis de Sales ("a loving, simple and permanent attentiveness of the mind to divine things").[117]
In the words of SaintAlphonsus Maria de Liguori, acquired contemplation "consists in seeing at a simple glance the truths which could previously be discovered only through prolonged discourse": reasoning is largely replaced by intuition and affections and resolutions, though not absent, are only slightly varied and expressed in a few words. Similarly, SaintIgnatius of Loyola, in his 30-day retreat orSpiritual Exercises beginning in the "second week" with its focus on the life of Jesus, describes less reflection and more simple contemplation on the events of Jesus' life. These contemplations consist mainly in a simple gaze and include an "application of the senses" to the events,[118]: 121 to further one's empathy for Jesus' values, "to love him more and to follow him more closely."[118]: 104
Natural or acquired contemplation has been compared to the attitude of a mother watching over the cradle of her child: she thinks lovingly of the child without reflection and amid interruptions. TheCatechism of the Catholic Church states:
What is contemplative prayer? St. Teresa answers: 'Contemplative [sic][note 16] prayer [oración mental] in my opinion is nothing else than a close sharing between friends; it means taking time frequently to be alone with him who we know loves us.' Contemplative prayer seeks him 'whom my soul loves'. It is Jesus, and in him, the Father. We seek him, because to desire him is always the beginning of love, and we seek him in that pure faith which causes us to be born of him and to live in him. In this inner prayer we can still meditate, but our attention is fixed on the Lord himself.[122]
In the mystical experience of Teresa of Avila, infused or higher contemplation, also called intuitive, passive or extraordinary, is a supernatural gift by which a person's mind will become totally centered on God.[123] It is a form ofmystical union with God, a union characterized by the fact that it is God, and God only, who manifests himself.[62] Under this influence of God, which assumes the free cooperation of the human will, the intellect receives special insights into things of the spirit, and the affections are extraordinarily animated with divine love.[123] This union that it entails may be linked with manifestations of a created object, as, for example, visions of the humanity of Christ or an angel or revelations of a future event, etc. They include miraculous bodily phenomena sometimes observed in ecstatics.[62]
In Teresa's mysticism, infused contemplation is described as a "divinely originated, general, non-conceptual, loving awareness of God".[124] According to Dubay:
It is a wordless awareness and love that we of ourselves cannot initiate or prolong. The beginnings of this contemplation are brief and frequently interrupted by distractions. The reality is so unimposing that one who lacks instruction can fail to appreciate what exactly is taking place. Initial infused prayer is so ordinary and unspectacular in the early stages that many fail to recognize it for what it is. Yet with generous people, that is, with those who try to live the whole Gospel wholeheartedly and who engage in an earnest prayer life, it is common.[124]
According toThomas Dubay, infused contemplation is the normal, ordinary development ofdiscursive prayer (mental prayer, meditative prayer), which it gradually replaces.[124] Dubay considers infused contemplation as common only among "those who try to live the whole Gospel wholeheartedly and who engage in an earnest prayer life". Other writers view contemplative prayer in its infused supernatural form as far from common.John Baptist Scaramelli, reacting in the 17th century againstquietism, taught thatasceticism and mysticism are two distinct paths to perfection, the former being the normal, ordinary end of the Christian life, and the latter something extraordinary and very rare.[125] Jordan Aumann considered that this idea of the two paths was "an innovation in spiritual theology and a departure from the traditional Catholic teaching".[126] AndJacques Maritain proposed that one should not say that every mystic necessarily enjoys habitual infused contemplation in the mystical state, since the gifts of the Holy Spirit are not limited to intellectual operations.[127]
According to Charles G. Herbermann, in theCatholic Encyclopedia (1908), Teresa of Avila described four degrees or stages of mystical union:
The first three are weak, medium, and the energetic states of the same grace.
For Teresa of Avila, the Prayer of Quiet is a state in which the soul experiences an extraordinary peace and rest, accompanied by delight or pleasure in contemplatingGod as present.[128][129][130][131][132] The Prayer of Quiet is also discussed in the writings ofFrancis de Sales,Thomas Merton and others.[133][134]
Author and mysticEvelyn Underhill recognizes two additional phases to the mystical path. First comes the awakening, the stage in which one begins to have some consciousness of absolute or divine reality. Purgation and illumination are followed by a fourth stage which Underhill, borrowing the language ofSt. John of the Cross, calls thedark night of the soul. This stage, experienced by the few, is one of final and complete purification and is marked by confusion, helplessness, stagnation of thewill, and a sense of the withdrawal of God's presence. This dark night of the soul is not, in Underhill's conception, the Divine Darkness of the pseudo-Dionysius and German Christian mysticism. It is the period of final "unselfing" and the surrender to the hidden purposes of the divine will. Her fifth and final stage is union with the object of love, the one Reality, God. Here the self has been permanently established on a transcendental level and liberated for a new purpose.[135]
Eastern Christianity has preserved a mystical emphasis in its theology[136] and retains inhesychasm a tradition ofmystical prayer dating back to Christianity's beginnings. Hesychasm concerns a spiritual transformation of the egoic self, the following of a path designed to produce more fully realized human persons, "created in the Image and Likeness of God" and as such, living in harmonious communion with God, the Church,[citation needed] the rest of the world, and all creation, including oneself. TheEastern Christian tradition speaks of this transformation in terms oftheosis or divinization, perhaps best summed up by an ancient aphorism usually attributed toAthanasius of Alexandria: "God became human so that man might become god."[note 17]
According toJohn Romanides, in the teachings ofEastern Orthodox Christianity the quintessential purpose and goal of the Christian life is to attaintheosis or 'deification', understood as 'likeness to' or 'union with' God.[note 18]Theosis is expressed as "Being, union with God" and having a relationship orsynergy between God and man.[note 19] Godis the Kingdom of Heaven.
Theosis or unity with God is obtained by engaging incontemplative prayer, the first stage oftheoria,[92][note 9] which results from the cultivation of watchfulness (Gk:nepsis). Intheoria, one comes to see or "behold" God or "uncreated light," a grace which is "uncreated."[note 20][note 21] In the Eastern Christian traditions, theoria is the most critical component needed for a person to be considered a theologian; however it is not necessary for one's salvation.[144] An experience of God is necessary to the spiritual and mental health of every created thing, including human beings.[80] Knowledge of God is not intellectual, but existential. According to eastern theologian Andrew Louth, the purpose of theology as a science is to prepare for contemplation,[145] rather than theology being the purpose of contemplation.
Theoria is the main aim ofhesychasm, which has its roots in the contemplative practices taught byEvagrius Ponticus (345–399),John Climacus (6th–7th century),Maximus the Confessor (c. 580–662), andSymeon the New Theologian (949–1022).[146] John Climacus, in his influentialLadder of Divine Ascent, describes several stages of contemplative or hesychast practice, culminating inagape. Symeon believed that direct experience gave monks the authority to preach and give absolution of sins, without the need for formal ordination. While Church authorities also taught from a speculative and philosophical perspective, Symeon taught from his own direct mystical experience,[147] and met with strong resistance for his charismatic approach, and his support of individual direct experience of God's grace.[147] According to John Romanides, this difference in teachings on the possibility to experience God or the uncreated light is at the very heart of many theological conflicts between Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Western Christianity, which is seen to culminate in the conflict overhesychasm.[83][note 22]
According to John Romanides, followingVladimir Lossky[148] in his interpretation of St.Gregory Palamas, the teaching that God is transcendent (incomprehensible inousia, essence or being), has led in the West to the (mis)understanding that God cannot be experienced in this life.[note 23] Romanides states that Western theology is more dependent upon logic and reason, culminating in scholasticism used to validate truth and the existence of God, than upon establishing a relationship with God (theosis and theoria).[note 24][note 25]
In the Orthodox Churches, theoria is regarded to lead to true spiritual knowledge, in contrast to the false or incomplete knowledge of rational thought (c.q.conjecture,speculation,[note 14]dianoia,stochastic anddialectics).[154] After illumination or theoria, humanity is in union with God and can properly discern, or haveholywisdom. Hence theoria, the experience or vision of God, silences all humanity.
The most common false spiritual knowledge is derived not from an experience of God, but from reading another person's experience of God and subsequently arriving at one's own conclusions, believing those conclusions to be indistinguishable from the actual experienced knowledge.
False spiritual knowledge can also beiniquitous, generated from an evil rather than a holy source. The gift of the knowledge of good and evil is then required, which is given by God. Humanity, in its finite existence as created beings or creatures, can never, by its own accord, arrive at a sufficiently objective consciousness. Theosis is the gradual submission of a person to the good, who then withdivine grace from the person's relationship or union with God, attains deification. Illumination restores humanity to that state of faith existent in God, callednoesis, before humanity's consciousness and reality was changed bytheir fall.[97]
In the orthodox Churches, false spiritual knowledge is regarded as leading to spiritual delusion (Russian prelest, Greek plani), which is the opposite ofsobriety. Sobriety (callednepsis) means full consciousness and self-realization (enstasis), giving true spiritual knowledge (called true gnosis).[155] Prelest or plani is the estrangement of the person to existence or objective reality, an alienation calledamartía. This includes damaging or vilifying the nous, or simply having a non-functioningnoetic andneptic faculty.[note 26]
Evil is, by definition, the act of turning humanity against its creator and existence.Misotheism, a hatred of God, is a catalyst that separates humanity from nature, or vilifies the realities ofontology, the spiritual world and the natural or material world. Reconciliation between God (the uncreated) and man is reached through submission in faith to God the eternal, i.e.transcendence rather thantransgression[note 27] (magic).
The Trinity as Nous, Word and Spirit (hypostasis) is,ontologically, the basis of humanity's being or existence. The Trinity is the creator of humanity's being via each component of humanity's existence: origin as nous (ex nihilo), inner experience or spiritual experience, and physical experience, which is exemplified by Christ (logos or the uncreated prototype of the highest ideal) and his saints. The following of false knowledge is marked by the symptom ofsomnolence or "awake sleep" and, later,psychosis.[157] Theoria is opposed toallegorical or symbolic interpretations of church traditions.[158]
In the Orthodox practice, once the stage of true discernment (diakrisis) is reached (calledphronema), one is able to distinguish false gnosis from valid gnosis and has holy wisdom. The highest holy wisdom,Sophia, orHagia Sophia, is cultivated by humility or meekness, akin to that personified by theTheotokos and all of the saints that came after her and Christ, collectively referred to as theecclesia or church. This community of unbroken witnesses is theOrthodox Church.[97]
Wisdom is cultivated by humility (emptying of oneself) andremembrance of death againstthymos (ego, greed andselfishness) and thepassions. Vlachos of Nafpaktos wrote:[156]
But let him not remain in this condition. If he wishes to see Christ, then let him do what Zacchaeus did. Let him receive the Word in his home, after having previously climbed up into the sycamore tree, 'mortifying his limbs on the earth and raising up the body of humility'.
— Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos (1996),Life after Death
Practicingasceticism is being dead to the passions and the ego, collectively known as theworld.
God is beyond knowledge and the fallen human mind, and, as such, can only be experienced in his hypostases through faith (noetically). False ascetism leads not to reconciliation with God and existence, but toward a false existence based on rebellion to existence.[note 27]
In theLatin Church terms derived from theLatin wordcontemplatio such as, in English, "contemplation" are generally used in languages largely derived from Latin, rather than the Greek termtheoria. The equivalence of the Latin and Greek terms[159] was noted byJohn Cassian, whose writings influenced the whole of Western monasticism,[160] in hisConferences.[161] However, Catholic writers do sometimes use the Greek term.[162]
TheEarly Middle Ages in the West includes the work ofGregory the Great andBede, as well as developments inCeltic Christianity andAnglo-Saxon Christianity, and comes to fulfillment in the work ofJohannes Scotus Eriugena and theCarolingian Renaissance.[163]
TheHigh Middle Ages saw a flourishing of mystical practice and theorization corresponding to the flourishing of new monastic orders, with such figures asGuigo II,Hildegard of Bingen,Bernard of Clairvaux, theVictorines, all coming from different orders, as well as the first real flowering ofpopular piety among the laypeople.
TheLate Middle Ages saw the clash between theDominican andFranciscanschools of thought, which was also a conflict between two differentmystical theologies: on the one hand that ofDominic de Guzmán and on the other that ofFrancis of Assisi,Anthony of Padua,Bonaventure,Jacopone da Todi,Angela of Foligno. Moreover, there was the growth of groups of mystics centered on geographic regions: theBeguines, such asMechthild of Magdeburg andHadewijch (among others); theRhenish-Flemish mysticsMeister Eckhart,Johannes Tauler,Henry Suso, andJohn of Ruysbroeck; and the English mysticsRichard Rolle,Walter Hilton andJulian of Norwich. This period also saw such individuals asCatherine of Siena andCatherine of Genoa, theDevotio Moderna, and such books as theTheologia Germanica,The Cloud of Unknowing andThe Imitation of Christ.[citation needed]
The Reformation brought about theCounter-Reformation and, with it, a new flowering of mystical literature, often grouped by nationality.[164]
The Spanish hadIgnatius Loyola, whoseSpiritual Exercises were designed to open people to a receptive mode of consciousness in which they can experience God through careful spiritual direction and through understanding how the mind connects to the will and how to weather the experiences of spiritualconsolation anddesolation;[165]Teresa of Ávila, who used the metaphors of watering a garden andwalking through the rooms of a castle to explain how meditation leads to union with God;[166] andJohn of the Cross, who used a wide range of biblical and spiritual influences both to rewrite the traditional "three ways" of mysticism after the manner of bridal mysticism and to present the two "dark nights": the dark night of the senses and thedark night of the soul, during which the individual renounces everything that might become an obstacle between the soul and God and then experiences the pain of feeling separated from God, unable to carry on normal spiritual exercises, as it encounters the enormous gap between its human nature and God's divine wisdom and light and moves up the 10-step ladder of ascent towards God.[167] Another prominent mystic wasMiguel de Molinos, the chief apostle of the religious revival known asQuietism. No breath of suspicion arose against Molinos until 1681, when the Jesuit preacher Paolo Segneri, attacked his views, though without mentioning his name, in hisConcordia tra la fatica e la quiete nell' orazione. The matter was referred to the Inquisition. A report got abroad that Molinos had been convicted of moral enormities, as well as of heretical doctrines; and it was seen that he was doomed. On September 3, 1687 he made public profession of his errors, and was sentenced to imprisonment for life. Contemporary Protestants saw in the fate of Molinos nothing more than a persecution by the Jesuits of a wise and enlightened man, who had dared to withstand the petty ceremonialism of the Italian piety of the day. Molinos died in prison in 1696 or 1697.[168]
Lorenzo Scupoli, from Otranto in Apulia, was an Italian mystic best known for authoringThe Spiritual Combat, a key work in Catholic mysticism.[169]
French mystics includedFrancis de Sales,Jeanne Guyon,François Fénelon,Brother Lawrence andBlaise Pascal.[170]
TheProtestant Reformation downplayed mysticism, although it still produced a fair amount of spiritual literature. Even the most active reformers can be linked to Medieval mystical traditions.Martin Luther, for instance, was a monk who was influenced by the German Dominican mystical tradition of Eckhart and Tauler as well by the Dionysian-influencedWesenmystik ("essence mysticism") tradition. He also published theTheologia Germanica, which he claimed was the most important book after the Bible and Augustine for teaching him about God, Christ, and humanity.[171] EvenJohn Calvin, who rejected many Medieval ascetic practices and who favored doctrinal knowledge of God over affective experience, has Medieval influences, namely,Jean Gerson and theDevotio Moderna, with its emphasis on piety as the method of spiritual growth in which the individual practices dependence on God by imitating Christ and the son-father relationship. Meanwhile, his notion that we can begin to enjoy our eternalsalvation through our earthly successes leads in later generations to "a mysticism of consolation".[172]Nevertheless, Protestantism was not devoid of mystics. Several leaders of theRadical Reformation had mystical leanings such asCaspar Schwenckfeld andSebastian Franck. The Magisterial traditions also produced mystics, notablyPeter Sterry (Calvinist) andJohann Arndt (Lutheran). An original thinker, formally in the Lutheran tradition but a forerunner of Christian theosophy, wasJakob Böhme.
As part of theProtestant Reformation, theologians turned away from the traditions developed in the Middle Ages and returned to what they consider to be biblical and early Christian practices. Accordingly, they were often skeptical of Catholic mystical practices, which seemed to them to downplay the role of grace in redemption and to support the idea that human works can play a role in salvation. Thus, Protestant theology developed a strong critical attitude, oftentimes even an animosity towards Christian mysticism.[173] However,Quakers,Methodists,Episcopalians,Lutherans,Presbyterians,Local Churches,Pentecostals,Adventists, andCharismatics have in various ways remained open to the idea of mystical experiences.[174]
The English had a denominational mix, from CatholicAugustine Baker andJulian of Norwich (the first woman to write in English), to AnglicansWilliam Law,John Donne, andLancelot Andrewes, to PuritansRichard Baxter andJohn Bunyan (The Pilgrim's Progress), to the first "Quaker",George Fox and the first "Methodist",John Wesley, who was well-versed in the continental mystics.[citation needed]
An example of "scientific reason lit up by mysticism in the Church of England"[175]is seen in the work of SirThomas Browne, a Norwich physician and scientist whose thought often meanders into mystical realms, as in his self-portrait,Religio Medici, and in the "mystical mathematics" ofThe Garden of Cyrus, whose full running title reads,Or, The Quincuncial Lozenge, or Network Plantations of the ancients, Naturally, Artificially, Mystically considered. Browne's highly original and dense symbolism frequently involves scientific, medical, or optical imagery to illustrate a religious or spiritual truth, often to striking effect, notably inReligio Medici, but also in his posthumous advisoryChristian Morals.[176]
Browne'slatitudinarian Anglicanism,hermetic inclinations, andMontaigne-like self-analysis on the enigmas, idiosyncrasies, and devoutness of his own personality and soul, along with his observations upon the relationship between science and faith, are on display inReligio Medici. His spiritual testament and psychological self-portrait thematically structured upon the Christian virtues of Faith, Hope and Charity, also reveal him as "one of the immortal spirits waiting to introduce the reader to his own unique and intense experience of reality".[177] Though his work is difficult and rarely read, he remains, paradoxically, one of England's perennial, yet first, "scientific" mystics.[citation needed]
Similarly, well-versed in the mystic tradition was the GermanJohann Arndt, who, along with the English Puritans, influenced such continentalPietists asPhilipp Jakob Spener,Gottfried Arnold,Nicholas Ludwig von Zinzendorf of theMoravians, and the hymnodistGerhard Tersteegen. Arndt, whose bookTrue Christianity was popular among Protestants, Catholics and Anglicans alike, combined influences from Bernard of Clairvaux, John Tauler and theDevotio Moderna into a spirituality that focused its attention away from the theological squabbles of contemporary Lutheranism and onto the development of thenew life in the heart and mind of the believer.[178] Arndt influenced Spener, who formed a group known as thecollegia pietatis ("college of piety") that stressed the role ofspiritual direction among lay-people—a practice with a long tradition going back toAelred of Rievaulx and known in Spener's own time from the work ofFrancis de Sales. Pietism as known through Spener's formation of it tended not just to reject the theological debates of the time, but to reject both intellectualism and organized religious practice in favor of a personalized, sentimentalized spirituality.[179]
This sentimental, anti-intellectual form of pietism is seen in the thought and teaching of Zinzendorf, founder of theMoravians; but more intellectually rigorous forms of pietism are seen in the teachings ofJohn Wesley, which were themselves influenced by Zinzendorf, and in the teachings of American preachersJonathan Edwards, who restored to pietism Gerson's focus on obedience and borrowed from early church teachersOrigen andGregory of Nyssa the notion that humans yearn for God,[180] andJohn Woolman, who combined a mystical view of the world with a deep concern for social issues; like Wesley, Woolman was influenced byJakob Böhme,William Law andThe Imitation of Christ.[181] The combination of pietistic devotion and mystical experiences that are found in Woolman and Wesley are also found in their Dutch contemporary Tersteegen, who brings back the notion of thenous ("mind") as the site of God's interaction with our souls; through the work of the Spirit, our mind is able to intuitively recognize the immediate presence of God in our midst.[182]
FifteenCarmelite nuns allowed scientists to scan their brains withfMRI while they were meditating, in a state known as Unio Mystica orTheoria.[183] The results showed that multiple regions of the brain were activated when they considered themselves to be inmystical union with God. These regions included the right medialorbitofrontal cortex, right middletemporal cortex, right inferior and superiorparietal lobules,caudate, left medialprefrontal cortex, left anteriorcingulate cortex, left inferiorparietal lobule, leftinsula, leftcaudate, leftbrainstem, and extra-striatevisual cortex.[183]
Further research in 2008 utilizedelectroencephalography (EEG) to examine the electrical activity of the brain during mystical experiences. This study found increasedtheta and gamma band power, as well as enhanced coherence between various brain regions, indicating a state of heightened neural integration during mystical experiences.[184]
In modern timestheoria is sometimes treated as distinct from the meaning given to it in Christianity, linking the word not with contemplation but with speculation.Boethius (c. 480–524 or 525) translated the Greek wordtheoria into Latin, not ascontemplatio but asspeculatio, andtheoria is taken to mean speculative philosophy.[185] A distinction is made, more radical than in ancient philosophy, betweentheoria andpraxis, theory and practice.[186]
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