Catherine IAlekseyevna Mikhailova[a] (bornMarta Samuilovna Skavronskaya;[b] 15 April [O.S. 5 April] 1684 – 17 May [O.S. 6 May] 1727) was the second wife and Empress consort ofPeter the Great, whom she succeeded asEmpress of Russia, ruling from 1725 until her death in 1727.
Only uncertain and contradictory information is available about her early life. Said to have been born on 15 April 1684 (o.s. 5 April),[1] she was originally named Marta Helena Skowrońska. Marta was the daughter of Samuel Skowroński (also spelledSamuil Skavronsky), aRoman Catholic farmer from the eastern parts of the formerPolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, his parents were born in the area ofMinsk (nowBelarus). In 1680, he married Dorothea Hahn at Jakobstadt (nowJēkabpils,Latvia). Her mother is named in at least one source as Elizabeth Moritz, a daughter of aBaltic German woman, and there is debate as to whether Moritz's father was a Swedish officer. It is likely that two stories were conflated, and Swedish sources suggest that the Elizabeth Moritz story is probably incorrect. Some biographies state that Marta's father was a gravedigger and handyman, while others speculate that he was a runaway landless serf.
Marta's parents died during aplague epidemic around 1689, leaving five children. According to one popular version of the story, at the age of three Marta was taken by an aunt and sent to Marienburg,Swedish Livonia (nowAlūksne, Latvia) where she was raised byJohann Ernst Glück, aLutheranpastor andBible translator.[5] According to some sources, she served in the Glück household as a lowly servant, scullery maid and washerwoman.[6] No effort was made to teach her to read and write and she remainedfunctionally illiterate throughout her life.
Marta was considered a very beautiful young girl, and there are accounts that Glück's wife became fearful that she would become involved with their son. After the outbreak of theGreat Northern War (1700–1721), at the age of 17, she was married off to aSwedishdragoon, Johan Cruse or Johann Rabbe, with whom she remained for eight days in 1702, at which point the Swedish troops were withdrawn from Marienburg. When Russian forces captured the town, Pastor Glück offered to work as a translator, andField MarshalBoris Sheremetev agreed to his proposal and took him to Moscow.
There are unsubstantiated stories that Marta worked briefly in the laundry of the victorious regiment, and also that she was presented in her undergarments to Brigadier GeneralRudolph Felix Bauer to be his mistress. She may have worked in the household of his superior, Sheremetev. She travelled back to the Russian court with Sheremetev's army.[6]
Afterwards she became part of the household ofAlexander Menshikov, who was the best friend of the thenTsarPeter I. Anecdotal sources suggest that she was purchased by Menshikov. Whether the two of them were lovers is disputed, as at the time Count Menshikov was already engaged to his future wife. It is evident however that Menshikov and Marta formed a lifetime political alliance.
It is possible that Menshikov, who was quite jealous of the tsar's attentions and knew his tastes, wanted to procure a mistress on whom he could rely. In 1703, while visiting Count Menshikov at his home, Tsar Peter I met Marta.[citation needed] By 1704, she was already well established in the tsar's household as his mistress, and gave birth to a son, Peter.[7] In 1703,[8] she converted toOrthodoxy and took the new name Catherine Alexeyevna (Yekaterina Alexeyevna).[6] She and Darya Menshikova accompanied Tsar Peter I and Prince Menshikov on their military excursions.
Though no record exists, Catherine and Peter are described as having married secretly between 23 October and 1 December 1707 inSaint Petersburg.[9] They had twelve children, two of whom survived into adulthood,Anna (born 1708) andElizabeth (born 1709).
Tsar Peter I had moved the capital to Saint Petersburg in 1703. While the city was being built he lived in a modestthree-room log cabin (with a study but without a fire-place) with Catherine. The relationship was the most successful of the tsar's life and a great number of letters exist demonstrating the strong affection between Catherine and Peter I.[9] As a person she was very energetic, compassionate, charming, and always cheerful. She was able to calm the tsar in his frequent rages and was often called in to do so.
Catherine went with Tsar Peter I on hisPruth Campaign in 1711. There, she was said to have saved Peter and his future empire, as related byVoltaire in his bookPeter the Great. Surrounded by overwhelming numbers of Turkish troops, Catherine suggested before surrendering, that her jewels and those of the other women be used in an effort to bribe the Ottoman grand vizierBaltacı Mehmet Pasha into allowing a retreat.
Mehmet allowed the retreat, whether motivated by the bribe or considerations of trade and diplomacy. In any case, Tsar Peter I credited Catherine and proceeded to marry her again, this time officially, atSaint Isaac's Cathedral in Saint Petersburg on 9 February 1712. She was the second wife of Tsar Peter I; he had previously married and divorcedEudoxia Lopukhina, who had borne him theTsarevich (heir apparent),Alexis Petrovich. Upon their wedding, Catherine took on the style of her husband and became Tsarina. TheOrder of Saint Catherine was instituted by her husband on the occasion.
Their small wooden palace inStrelna, designed around 1714, had abotanical garden. In 1716, she accompanied him to his second embassy to the United Provinces but stayed behind atWesel to give birth. He did not take her to Paris; she stayed inHaarlemmerhout in the mansion of the Russian resident Osip Solovjov.[10] In 1724, Peter had Catherine crowned as Empress, although he remained Russia's actual ruler.
Catherine was crowned in 1724. The year before his death, Emperor Peter the Great and Empress Catherine had an estrangement over her support ofWillem Mons, brother of Peter's former mistressAnna, and brother to one of the current ladies in waiting for Catherine,Matryona. He served as Catherine's secretary. Peter I had fought long to clear upcorruption in Russia. Catherine had a great deal of influence over who could gain access to her husband. Willem Mons and his sister Matryona had begun selling their influence to those who wanted access to Catherine and, through her, to Peter. Apparently this had been overlooked by Catherine, who was fond of both. Peter found out and had Willem Mons executed and his sister Matryona exiled. He and Catherine did not speak for several months. Rumors flew that she and Mons had had an affair, but there is no evidence for this.
Emperor Peter the Great died (28 January 1725Old Style) without naming a successor. Catherine represented the interests of the "new men", commoners who had been brought to positions of great power by Peter based on competence. A change of government was likely to favor the entrenched aristocrats. For that reason during a meeting of a council to decide on a successor, a coup was arranged by Menshikov and others in which theguards regiments with whom Catherine was very popular proclaimed her the ruler of Russia. Supporting evidence was "produced" from Peter's secretary Makarov and theBishop of Pskov, both "new men" with motivation to see Catherine take over. The real power, however, lay with Menshikov,Peter Tolstoy, and other members of theSupreme Privy Council.
Catherine viewed the deposed empress Eudoxia as a threat, so she secretly moved her toShlisselburg Fortress near Saint Petersburg to be put in a secret prison under strict custody as a state prisoner.[citation needed]
Catherine I died two years after Peter I, on 17 May 1727 at age 43, in Saint Petersburg, where she was buried atSt. Peter and St. Paul Fortress.Tuberculosis, diagnosed as an abscess of the lungs, caused her early demise.
Before her death she recognizedPeter II, the grandson of Peter I and Eudoxia, as her successor.
Catherine was the first woman to rule Imperial Russia, opening the legal path for a century almost entirely dominated by women, including her daughter Elizabeth and granddaughter-in-lawCatherine the Great, all of whom continued Peter the Great's policies in modernizing Russia. At the time of Peter's death the Russian Army, composed of 130,000 men and supplemented by another 100,000 Cossacks,[11] was easily the largest in Europe. However, the expense of the military was proving ruinous to the Russian economy, consuming some 65% of the government's annual revenue.[12] Since the nation was at peace, Catherine was determined to reduce military expenditure.[12] For most of her reign, Catherine I was controlled by her advisers. However, on this single issue, the reduction of military expenses, Catherine was able to have her way.[13] The resulting tax relief on the peasantry led to the reputation of Catherine I as a just and fair ruler.[citation needed]
TheSupreme Privy Council concentrated power in the hands of one party, and thus was an executive innovation. In foreign affairs, Russia reluctantly joined the Austro-Spanish league to defend the interests of Catherine's son-in-law, theDuke of Holstein, against Great Britain.
Catherine gave her name toCatherinehof near Saint Petersburg, and built the first bridges in the new capital. She was also the first royal owner of theTsarskoye Selo estate, where theCatherine Palace still bears her name.
The city ofYekaterinburg is named after her,[14] Yekaterina being the Russian form of her name.
In general, Catherine's policies were reasonable and cautious. The story of her humble origins was considered by later generations oftsars to be a state secret.
Coat of arms of the Counts Skavronsky, who became part of theRussian nobility, granted to them on 5 January 1727
Upon Peter's death, Catherine found her four siblings, Krystyna, Anna, Karol, and Fryderyk, granted them the newly created titles ofCount andCountess, and brought them to Russia.
Krystyna Dorothea Skowrońska, westernized Christina (Russian:Христина) Samuilovna Skavronskaya (1687–14 April 1729), had married Simon Heinrich (Russian:Симон Гейнрих) (1672–1728) and their descendants becameCounts Gendrikov.
Anna Skowrońska, renamed Anna Samuilovna Skavronskaya (1683-1750), had married one Michael-Joachim N and their descendants became theCounts Efimovsky.
Karol Skowroński, renamed Karel Samuilovich Skavronsky (c.1675-1729), was created aCount Skavronsky in theRussian Empire on 5 January 1727[7] and made aChamberlain of the Imperial Court; he had married Maria Ivanovna Skavronskaya, aRussian woman, by whom he had descendants who became extinct in the male line with the death of Count Pavel Martinovich Skavronsky (1757–1793), father of PrincessCatherine Bagration.
Fryderyk Skowroński, renamed Feodor Samuilovich Skavronsky (1680-1729), was created aCount Skavronsky in the Russian Empire on 5 January 1727[7] and was married twice: to N, aLithuanian woman, and to Ekaterina Rodionovna Saburova, without having children by either of them.[16]
^Driessen van het Reve, Jozien J. (2006).De Kunstkamera van Peter de Grote. De Hollandse inbreng, gereconstrueerd uit brieven van Albert Seba en Johann Daniel Schumacher uit de jaren 1711–1752 (in Dutch). Hilversum: Verloren. p. 148.ISBN978-90-6550-927-7.
Hughes, Lindsey (2004). "Catherine I of Russia, Consort to Peter the Great". In Campbell Orr, Clarissa (ed.).Queenship in Europe 1660–1815: The Role of the Consort. Cambridge University Press. pp. 131–154.ISBN0-521-81422-7.
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