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Cathedrals,collegiate churches, andmonastic churches like those ofabbeys andpriories, often have certain complex structural forms that are found less often inparish churches. They also tend to display a higher level ofcontemporary architectural style and the work of accomplished craftsmen, and occupy a status both ecclesiastical and social that an ordinary parish church rarely has. Such churches are generally among the finest buildings locally and a source of regional pride.[1] Many are among the world's most renowned works of architecture. These includeSt Peter's Basilica,Notre-Dame de Paris,Cologne Cathedral,Salisbury Cathedral,Antwerp Cathedral,Prague Cathedral,Lincoln Cathedral, theBasilica of Saint-Denis,Santa Maria Maggiore, theBasilica of San Vitale,St Mark's Basilica,Westminster Abbey,Saint Basil's Cathedral,Antoni Gaudí's incompleteSagrada Família and the ancient cathedral ofHagia Sophia inIstanbul, now amosque.
The earliest large churches date from Late Antiquity. AsChristianity and the construction ofchurches spread across the world, their manner of building was dependent upon local materials and local techniques. Differentstyles of architecture developed and their fashion spread, carried by the establishment of monastic orders, by the posting ofbishops from one region to another and by the travelling of masterstonemasons who served asarchitects.[2] The successive styles of the great church buildings ofEurope are known asEarly Christian,Byzantine,Romanesque,Gothic,Renaissance,Baroque,Rococo,Neoclassical, and variousRevival styles of the late 18th to early 20th centuries, and thenModern.[3] Underlying each of the academic styles are the regional characteristics. Some of these characteristics are so typical of a particular country or region that they appear, regardless of style, in the architecture of churches designed many centuries apart.[3]
Among the world's largest and most architecturally significant churches, many were built to serve as cathedrals or abbey churches. The categories below are not exclusive. A church can be an abbey church and serve as a cathedral. SomeProtestant parish churches likeUlm Minster have never served as any of these; since theReformation manyWestern Christian denominations dispensed with theepiscopate altogether and medieval churches lost, gained, or lost again their cathedral status, likeSt Giles', Edinburgh orSt Magnus', Kirkwall. Some great churches of theMiddle Ages, such as Westminster Abbey, are former abbeys; others likeRipon Cathedral andBath Abbey were built as monastic churches and became cathedrals or parish churches in recent centuries; others again were built as parish churches and subsequently raised to cathedrals, likeSouthwark Cathedral. Some significant churches are termed "temples" or "oratories". Among theRoman Catholic churches, many have been raised to the status of "basilica" since the 18th century.
Acathedral has a specific ecclesiastical role and administrative purpose as the seat of abishop. The cathedral (Latin:ecclesia cathedralis,lit. 'church of thecathedra') takes its name from thecathedra, 'seat' of the bishop, known as the episcopal throne. The wordcathedral is sometimes mistakenly applied as a generic term for any very large and imposing church.
The role of bishop as an administrator of localclergy came into being in the 1st century.[4][better source needed] It was two hundred years before the first cathedral building was constructed in Rome. With the legalizing of Christianity in 313 by theEmperor Constantine I, churches were built rapidly. Five very large churches were founded in Rome and, though much altered or rebuilt, still exist today, including the cathedral church of Rome,St John on theLateran Hill and thepapal St Peter's Basilica on theVatican Hill, now theVatican City.[5]
Thearchitectural form which cathedrals took was largely dependent upon theirritual function as the seat of a bishop. Cathedrals are places where, in common with other Christian churches, theEucharist is celebrated, theBible is read, theliturgy is said or sung,prayers are offered andsermons are preached. But in a cathedral, among denominations withepiscopalian church governance, these things are done with a greater amount of elaboration, pageantry and procession than in lesser churches. This elaboration is particularly present during importantliturgical rites performed by a bishop, such asconfirmation andordination. In areas with astate religion or anestablished church a cathedral is often the site ofrituals associated with local or nationalgovernment, the bishops performing the tasks of all sorts from the induction of amayor to thecoronation of amonarch. Some of these tasks are apparent in the form and fittings of particular cathedrals.[6][full citation needed]
Cathedrals are not always large buildings and there are no prerequisites in size, height, or capacity for cathedrals to serve as such beyond those required to be a typical church. A cathedral might be as small as the historicNewport Cathedral, a late medieval parish church declared a cathedral in 1949. That said, size, height, capacity, and architectural prominence are all categories in which most cathedrals excel (at least comparatively within the municipal context of each building).[7]
There exist a number of practical reasons for this:
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An abbey church is one that is, or was in the past, the church of amonastic order. Likewise afriary church is the church of an order offriars. These orders includeBenedictines,Cistercians,Augustinians,Franciscans,Dominicans,Jesuits and many more. Many churches of abbey foundation, are or previously were, part of a monastic complex that includes dormitories,refectory,cloisters, library,chapter house and other such buildings.
In many parts of the world, abbey churches frequently served the local community as well as the monastic community. In regions such as theBritish Isles where the monastic communities weredissolved,appropriated,secularized, or otherwisesuppressed, the monastic churches often continued to serve as a parish church. In many areas ofAsia andSouth America, the monasteries had the earliest established churches, with the monastic communities acting initially as missionaries to, and colonists of, indigenous people. Well-known abbey churches includeSanta Maria delle Grazie, Milan,Italy;Westminster Abbey andBeverley Minster inEngland, theAbbey of Saint-Étienne, Caen andAbbey of St-Denis inFrance,Melk Abbey inAustria,Great Lavra onMt Athos, and theMalate Church inManila.
The meaning of "basilica" in architecture is discussed below; in the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical sense, a "basilica" is a title awarded by thepope, head of theCatholic Church, and recipient churches are accordingly afforded certain privileges. A building that is designated as a basilica might be a cathedral, a collegiate or monastic church, a parish church, or ashrine. The four so-called "Major Basilicas" are four churches of Rome of 4th century foundation,St John Lateran,Santa Maria Maggiore,St Peter's Basilica, and theBasilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls.[9] There are 1,810 as of 2019[update] churches in the world which are designated as "Minor Basilicas". The reason for such a designation is often that the church is a prominent pilgrimage site and contains the celebrated relics of asaint, or anotherrelic, such as a supposed fragment of theTrue Cross. These churches are often large and of considerable architectural significance. They include theBasilica of St Francis, Assisi; theChurch of the Nativity,Bethlehem;Santhome Church,Chennai; theSanctuary of Fátima,Portugal;Sheshan Basilica,Shanghai, theBasilica of the Immaculate Conception inManila, and theBasilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe inMexico City.[10]
The church building grew out of a number of features of the Ancient Roman period:
From the first to the early fourth centuries most Christian communities worshipped in private homes, often secretly. Some Roman churches, such as theBasilica of San Clemente in Rome, are built directly over the houses where early Christians worshipped. Other early Roman churches are built on the sites of Christianmartyrdom or at the entrance tocatacombs where Christians were buried.The first very large Christian churches were built in Rome and have their origins in the early 4th century, when withEdict of Milan the emperorsConstantine andLicinius continued the legalization of Christianity begun by their predecessorGalerius'sEdict of Serdica. Several of Rome's largest churches, notablySanta Maria Maggiore andSt John Lateran, have their foundation in the 4th century. The cathedral church of Rome is St John Lateran and not the more famousSt Peter's Basilica. St Peter's is also of 4th century foundation, though nothing of that appears above the ground.[11]
When Early Christian Communities began to build churches they drew on one particular feature of the houses that preceded them, theatrium, or courtyard with acolonnade surrounding it.[12] Most of these atriums have disappeared. A fine example remains at theBasilica of San Clemente in Rome and another was built in the Romanesque period atSant'Ambrogio, Milan. The descendants of theseatria may be seen in the large squarecloisters that can be found beside many cathedrals, and in the huge colonnaded squares or piazze at the Basilicas of St Peter's in Rome and St Mark's in Venice and the Camposanto (Holy Field) atPisa Cathedral.
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Early church architecture did not draw its form from Roman temples, as the latter did not have large internal spaces where worshipping congregations could meet.It was the Romanbasilica, used for meetings, markets and courts of law that provided a model for the large Christian church and that gave its name to the Christianbasilica.Both Roman basilicas and Romanbath houses had at their core a large vaulted building with a high roof, braced on either side by a series of lower chambers or a widearcade passage. An important feature of the Roman basilica was that at either end it had a projectingexedra, orapse, a semicircular space roofed with a half-dome. This was where the magistrates sat to hold court. It passed into the church architecture of the Roman world and was adapted in different ways as a feature of cathedral architecture.[11]
The earliest large churches, such as the cathedral ofSt John Lateran in Rome, consisted of a single-ended basilica with one apsidal end and a courtyard, oratrium, at the other end. AsChristian liturgy developed, processions became part of the proceedings. The processional door was that which led from the furthest end of the building, while the door most used by the public might be that central to one side of the building, as in a basilica of law. This is the case in many cathedrals and churches.[13]
One of the influences onchurch architecture was themausoleum. The mausoleum of a noble Roman was a square or circular domed structure which housed asarcophagus.Constantine the Great built for his daughterConstantina a mausoleum which has a circular central space surrounded by a lower ambulatory or passageway separated by a colonnade.
This burial place became a place of worship,Santa Costanza, as well as a tomb. It is one of the earliest church buildings that was centrally, rather than longitudinally planned. Constantine was also responsible for the building of the circular, mausoleum-likeChurch of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, which in turn influenced the plan of a number of buildings, including that constructed in Rome to house the remains of the proto-martyrSaint Stephen,San Stefano Rotondo and theBasilica of San Vitale in Ravenna.
Ancient circular or polygonal churches are comparatively rare. A small number, such as theTemple Church, London were built during theCrusades in imitation of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as isolated examples in England, France and Spain. In Denmark such churches in the Romanesque style are much more numerous. In parts of Europe there are also round tower-like churches of the Romanesque period but they are generally vernacular architecture and of small scale. Others, like Rotunda of St Martin atVyšehrad in the Czech Republic are finely detailed.
The circular or polygonal form lent itself to those buildings within church complexes that perform a function in which it is desirable for people to stand, or sit around, with a centralised focus, rather than an axial one. In Italy the circular or polygonal form was used throughout the medieval period for baptisteries, while in England it was adapted forchapter houses. In France the aisled polygonal plan was adapted as the eastern terminal and in Spain the same form is often used as a chapel.
Other than Santa Costanza and San Stefano, there was another significant place of worship in Rome that was also circular, the vast Ancient RomanPantheon, with its numerous statue-filled niches. This too was to become a church and subsequently a Roman Catholic basilica and lend its style to the development of ecclesiastical architecture.[5][11]
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As numbers of clergy increased, the small apse which contained the altar, or table upon which thesacramental bread and wine were offered in therite ofHoly Communion, was not sufficient to accommodate them. A raised dais called a bema formed part of many large basilican churches. In the case of St Peter's Basilica and St Paul's Outside the Walls in Rome, this bema extended laterally beyond the main meeting hall, forming two arms so that the building took on the shape of a T with a projecting apse. From this beginning, the plan of the church developed into the so-calledLatin Cross which is the shape of most Western Cathedrals and large churches. The arms of the cross are called thetransept.[13]
Many of the earliest churches ofByzantium have a longitudinal plan. AtHagia Sophia, Istanbul, there is a central dome, framed on one axis by two high semi-domes and on the other by low rectangular transept arms, the overall plan being square. This large church was to influence the building of many later churches, even into the 21st century. A square plan in which the nave, chancel and transept arms are of equal length forming aGreek cross, the crossing generally surmounted by a dome became the common form in theOrthodox Church, with many churches throughout Eastern Europe and Russia being built in this way. Churches of the Greek Cross form often have anarthex or vestibule which stretches across the front of the church. This type of plan was also to later play a part in the development of church architecture in Western Europe, most notably inBramante's plan forSt Peter's Basilica[3][11][better source needed] andChristopher Wren's design forSt Paul's Cathedral.
Most cathedrals and great churches have a cruciformgroundplan. In churches of Western European tradition, the plan is usually longitudinal, in the form of the so-calledLatin Cross with a longnave crossed by a transept. The transept may be as strongly projecting as atYork Minster or not project beyond the aisles as atAmiens Cathedral.[citation needed]
Note- The list below is compiled fromBanister Fletcher.[3] Because of the diversity in the individual building histories, not all the characteristics pertain to every building.
As described above, the majority of cathedrals and great churches are cruciform in shape with the church having a defined axis. Theaxis is generally east/west with external emphasis upon the west front, normally the main entrance, and internal emphasis upon the eastern end so that the congregation faces the direction of the coming ofChrist. As it is also in the direction of the rising sun, the architectural features of the east end often focus on enhancing interior illumination by the sun. Not every church or cathedral maintains a strict east–west axis, but even in those that do not, the terms East End and West Front are used.[14] Many churches of Rome, notably St Peter's Basilica, face the opposite direction.
The majority of cathedrals and large churches of the Western European tradition have a high widenave with a loweraisle separated by an arcade on either side.[15] Occasionally the aisles are as high as the nave, forming ahall church; this is mostly a German type.[16] Many cathedrals have two aisles on either side.Notre-Dame de Paris has two aisles and a row of chapels.
In the case of a centrally planned church, the major axis is that between the main door and the altar.
Thetransept forms the arms of the church building. In English cathedrals of monastic foundation there are often two transepts.[17] The intersection where the nave and transept meet is called thecrossing and is often surmounted by a small spire called aflèche, a dome or, particularly in England, a large tower with or without a spire.[18]
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There is generally a prominent external feature that rises upwards. It may be a dome, a central tower, two western towers or towers at both ends as atSpeyer Cathedral. The towers are often topped by aspire. Often towers rise above the main entrance at the west front, or they may be placed centrally, or at the east end, but spires were unusual at the west end beforeJames Gibbs's innovative and much-copiedSt Martin-in-the-Fields, London, in the 1720s.[19] The towers may be finished with pinnacles or spires or a small dome.
The façade or "west front" or in some cases termed thewestwork, is the most ornate part of the exterior, with the processional doors, often three in number, and often richly decorated with sculpture, marble or stone tracery.[20][21][22] The façade often has a large window, sometimes a rose window or an impressive sculptural group as its central feature.
In the Western European tradition, there are frequently paired towers framing the façade. These towers have their origin in a tradition practiced at theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. DuringHoly Week the faithful would process along theWay of the Cross, leading to the Basilica, which in Early Christian times consisted of a domed shrine over the site of the tomb, and a "porch" which had a staircase on either side, supported by a small tower, by which the procession entered and exited. These towers were adopted symbolically, particularly inRomanesque architecture, as corner turrets. They flourished inNorman andGothic architecture as large towers, reaching their height of magnificence atCologne Cathedral, where they were not completed until the late 19th century.
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The east end is the part of the building which shows the greatest diversity of architectural form. At the eastern end, internally, lies the sanctuary where the altar of the cathedral is located.
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The external decoration of a cathedral or large church building is often both architectural and pictorial. Decorative architectural devices includecolumns,pilasters,arcading,cornices,moldings,finials andtracery. The forms taken by these features is one of the clearest indications of the style and date of any particular building. Pictorial elements may include sculpture, painting and mosaic.
Sculpture is the predominant pictorial decorative element in most regions where buildings are of stone construction. In the great medieval churches of France, Spain, England and much of Germany, figurative sculpture is found adorning façades and portals.
Churches of brick, such as those of much of Italy, are often adorned withmosaics,inlays, inset marblefriezes and free-standing statues at the roofline. Mosaics were a particular feature of Byzantine architecture and are the main form of adornment of manyOrthodox churches, both externally and internally.
The most common theme in the decoration, both external and internal, of any church, is thesalvation of humankind byJesus Christ. The decorative scheme often functions as aPoor Man's Bible, warning the church-goer that, in Biblical terms, the just rewards for his sinful nature is death, and that only through Jesus can forgiveness and redemption be gained. The scheme typically starts outside the church, on the west front, with the portrayal ofChrist the Judge above thelintel of the main door. In Romanesque and Gothic buildings, this is usually a sculptural group, and may entail a whole scene of theLast Judgement with details of souls being weighed and rewarded, or dragged down toHell bydemons. In those churches in which painted rather than sculptured decoration prevails, theLast Judgement is often located on the interior of the west end, rather than the exterior.[23][full citation needed][24][full citation needed]
Section references:Banister Fletcher,[3][full citation needed] Wim Swaan,[6][full citation needed] Larousse.[23][full citation needed]
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The main body of the building, making the longer arm of the cross, where worshippers congregate, is called thenave. The term is from the Latin word for ship. A cathedral is symbolically a ship bearing thepeople of God through the storms of life. In addition, the high wooden roof of a large church is similarly constructed to thehull of a ship.[25][better source needed]
The nave is braced on either side by lower aisles, separated from the main space by a row of piers or columns. The aisles facilitate the movement of people, even when the nave is full of worshippers. They also strengthen the structure by buttressing the inner walls that carry the high roof, which in the case of many cathedrals and other large churches, is made of stone. Above the roof of the aisle are theclerestory windows which light the nave.
In some large churches, particularly late Medieval churches, there are two aisles on either side of nave. Other churches have a single aisle and a row of chapels on either side. In some churches, particularly in Germany, the aisles are almost as high as the nave, forming a "hall church". In this case, because there is no clerestory, the aisle windows are often very tall, to admit light to the nave.
Thecrossing is the point in a church at which the transept intersects the nave. This point is often marked externally by a tower or dome and internally by the piers and arches that are required to bear the weight of such a structure. The interior of the dome or tower may be one of the major architectural features of the interior of the church. In a centrally planned church such as Hagia Sophia, and typical of many Orthodox churches, the major interior space of the building is roofed by the dome.
The transept is symbolic of the arms of the Cross, but also provides space for congregation and for additional chapels. Transept chapels are often dedicated to a particular saint, or to a particular aspect in the life and ministry of Christ, such as theNativity or theResurrection. In some English cathedrals there is often a second transept containing chapels, to facilitate the saying of theDivine Office by clergy each day.[26][27][full citation needed]
In a church in which part of the body of the church extends beyond the transept, then this extension is architecturally termed the "chancel", for which the stricter definition includes only thechoir and the sanctuary with the high altar, but in the common wider definition includes the whole eastern arm beyond the crossing.[28] This architectural form is common inNorman andGothic architecture. The choir, where it exists, normally contains thechoir stalls, and the "sanctuary" and the "cathedra" (bishop's throne). The architectural "choir" is sometimes termed the "quire" to differentiate it from thechoir of singers. In the Middle Ages these were all clergy, or boys in an attachedchoir school, and the chancel (strictly defined) was the area occupied by officiating clergy, with few lay intrusions. In cathedrals thecanons and other priests sat in the choir, as did the monks in monastic churches.[29]
In those English cathedrals with two transepts, there is a further area beyond the choir which is called thepresbytery.[30] This is where the priests or monks could make their private devotions (and is not to be confused with the general sense of a room to the side where the clergy put on their vestments, or a Catholicclergy house). Often there are many additional chapels located towards the eastern end of a cathedral or abbey church. The chief among these is typically theLady Chapel which is dedicated to theVirgin Mary.[31]
The altar in the Roman Catholic church is the center of the church where the sacrifice on the cross is made present in sacramental form.[32] Secondarily in the Catholic church, and primarily in other Christian denominations, the altar is a table on which is laid theBlessed Sacrament of bread and wine for consecration by a priest prior to use in the rite ofCommunion. The main altar in a church is located in a designated space called the "chancel" or "sanctuary" ("holy place"). The word has passed into modern English with an altered meaning because a criminal who could gain access to this area without capture was thereby given thesanctuary of the church.[33] Many churches have an additional altar placed further forward in the church, as well as altars in chapels. The altar of a Catholic church may be made of stone, often marble. In mostProtestant churches altars are of wood, symbolic of the table of theLast Supper rather than of a sacrificial altar, and may be called theCommunion table.[34]
The sanctuary is often separated from the body of the church by railings and screens, and, in the case of Orthodox andByzantine Catholic churches, by aniconostasis which forms a complete visual as well as physical barrier. The sanctuary is usually the most ornately decorated part of a church, creating a visual focus towards the altar. This might be done in several ways. There might be a carved or paintedaltarpiece, a large carved screen called a reredos, or a structure called aciborium which form a canopy over the altar. In English churches that have a square eastern end, a very largestained glass "east window" often fills the wall behind the altar; examples still with medieval glass includeYork Minster,Gloucester Cathedral andSt Margaret's, Westminster.[35]
The term "choir" is used in two distinct ways in relation to cathedrals. It firstly means thechoir of "choristers", often men and boys, that sing at the services; in medieval cathedrals, and sometimes still, the boys from a specialchoir school. It is also the term used for thatsection of the church where the choir sits and stands to sing in services. In a cathedral or large church, there may be fixed seating in this area, calledchoir stalls which also provided seating for the cathedral clergy and some congregation. The choir stalls are often richly carved and decorated. The bishop's throne orcathedra is often located in this space. The choir may be separated from the nave by a highly decorated screen of wood or stone.[36]
The organ which provides music and accompanies the choir may be located on the screen, or may be in the gallery above the choir, or in a transept. Some churches have an organ loft at the west end of the church. These are usually a later addition to medieval churches; large examples hadportative organs, often several.[37]
Towards the western end of the nave stands the font, or water basin at which the rite ofBaptism is performed. It is placed towards the door because the Baptism signifies entry into the community of the church. Standing to the front of the nave is a lectern from which theHoly Scripture is read. In many churches this takes theform of an eagle which supports the book on its outstretched wings and is the symbol ofJohn the Evangelist.
The third significant furnishing of the nave is the pulpit or rostrum from which thesermon is preached and the biblical readings are expounded. Thepulpit might be of marble or wood, and may be a simple structure or represent a highly elaborate carved sermon. It is often decorated with the winged figures of a man, a lion, a bull and an eagle, representing theGospel writers, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.[38]
The internal decorative features of a cathedral or great church might follow a carefully conceived scheme which might continue the theme begun on the west front. There are many examples which give evidence of this, and include themosaic vaults of Orthodox churches, thestained glass windows of Medieval churches and the sculptural schemes of Baroque churches. However, in many other cases, any unified scheme has been lost with the vagaries of the building's history.[citation needed]
Despite losses and changes of direction, the over-riding aim in the decoration of church interiors is to convey the message of theGospels. To this end, many churches have, in their decorative schemes, elements of aPoor Man's Bible, illustrating aspects of theLife of Christ and other related narratives, with the aim of educating the viewer. Among these representations are theStations of the Cross and theCrucifix which was traditionally suspended from the chancel arch, or placed on arood screen at the entrance to the quire. Other figurative representations include sculptures or pictures of saints and prophets, which are the common subject of the panel paintings on theiconostasis of Orthodox Churches.[citation needed]
The symbolism used in ancient churches is not always easy for modern people to read. Virtues and vices may be represented by small figures with particular attributes, or by animals that were thought to embody a particular quality. A common example is thepelican which was thought to peck its breast to feed its young on the blood, thus representing the love of Christ for the Church.[citation needed]
The decorative scheme generally culminated at the altar, where there would be a paintedaltarpiece or sculpturedreredos, or it would be framed by a stained glass window, or an apsidal mosaic.[39][full citation needed][40][full citation needed]
The period of architecture termed Early or Paleo-Christian lasted from the first Christian Church buildings of the early 4th century until the development of a distinctly Byzantine style which emerged in the reign ofJustinian I in the 6th century, foundation ofConstantinople by Constantine in 330 CE. Some of the earliest Christian churches were constructed by theArsacid dynasty of Armenia, where kingTiridates III converted to Christianity in 301. The smallaislelessKasagh Basilica atAparan in theKingdom of Armenia is traditionally dated to the 4th or 5th century.[41]
Large Early Christian churches generally took the form of aisled basilicas with an apse.[42] Among the early larger churches in Rome the Basilica ofSanta Maria Maggiore has retained much of its original internal arrangement, its vast basilical proportions, its simple apsidal end, its greatcolonnade supporting a straightcornice rather than arches and some very earlymosaic decoration.Santa Sabina, also in Rome, exemplifies the simplicity of architectural decoration that characterized many of the early Christian basilicas. Other important churches of this period are the two ancient circular churches of Rome, The Basilica ofSanta Costanza andSan Stefano Rotondo. These churches are marked by their formal application of the Roman architectural orders in their columns, withIoniccapitals supporting the lintel at Santa Maria Maggiore, Corinthian andComposite capitals at Santa Sabina and Santa Costanza, and all three orders at San Stefano. At Santa Costanza the thick brick walls of the central tambour are supported on slim elegant columns that are paired to give extra strength, each pair supporting a small section of cornice from which the arches spring.[43][5][full citation needed][11][full citation needed]
A number of Rome's churches have retained Early Christian mosaics. Those at Santa Costanza are similar to mosaics and painted decoration found in public and domestic interiors, being largely geometric or floral, but close examination reveals much Christian symbolism in the choice of motives. One of the most extensive decorative schemes from the period to have remained at least partially intact is that at Santa Maria Maggiore, where the proscenium of the apse is decorated with stories of theInfancy of Jesus drawn from theGospel of Matthew.[citation needed]
TheAnchiskhati Basilica is the oldest church inGeorgia, dating from the 6th century.[citation needed]
Where churches of Early Christian foundation remain, they are mostly considerably altered, are badly deteriorated and no longer viable, or are roofless ruins, a state which almost overtook San Stefano, prior to a renovation in the 15th century. The 4th centuryChurch of the Nativity inBethlehem was rebuilt by Justinian I after a fire in the 6th century, but appears to have retained much of its original form, including its massive Roman colonnades. The ConstantinianChurch of the Holy Sepulchre, on the other hand, was demolished under the order of theFatimid caliphAl-Hakim in 1009 so that what stands today is a total reconstruction.[citation needed]
TheEuphrasian Basilica in Poreč, Croatia, was founded in 360 on the site of a house church and retaining part of its Roman pavement. Although renovated and decorated in the late 6th century, the church has retained Early Christian features, including the atrium. Several Early Christian churches exist in Syria and Armenia, mostly in a ruined state. These show Roman rather than Byzantine architectural features, but have a regional character distinct from those of Rome.[3][full citation needed]
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Ravenna, on the eastern coast of Italy, is home to several vast churches of basilica plan dating from the age of theEmperor Justinian (6th century CE).San Apollinare Nuovo is in plan similar toSanta Maria Maggiore, but the details of the carvings are no longer in the classical Roman style. The capitals are like fat lacy stone cushions. Many of themosaics are intact.[44]
In the same town stands the uniquely structured, centrally planned, and domed church ofSan Vitale, of the same date. Its main internal space is 25 m across. The central dome is surrounded by eight apsidalsemi-domes like the petals of a flower.[45] There is a complex arrangement of curving arcades on several levels which gives a spatial effect only equalled by the Baroque church ofSanta Maria della Salute built a thousand years later a few miles north inVenice. San Vitale was to be imitated in the 9th century in a simplified form byCharlemagne atAachen, Germany.
In Venice stands San Marco's, one of the world's best known Byzantine-style churches, dating mainly from the 11th-century and decorated over many centuries but maintaining its centrally planned Byzantine form. It is calledSt Mark's Basilica, not because it is of basilical shape, but because it has been awarded that title. It has aGreek Cross plan, a large dome being surrounded by four somewhat smaller ones. Its decoration, both inside and out, is typical of the Byzantine period in its lavish use ofmosaics andpolychromemarbleveneers.[46][3][full citation needed][23][full citation needed]
After the decline of theRoman Empire, the building of large churches in Western Europe gradually gained momentum with the spread of organised monasticism under the rule ofSaint Benedict and others. A huge monastery atCluny, only a fraction of which still exists, was built using a simplified Roman style, stout columns, thick walls, small window openings and semi-circular arches. The style spread withmonasticism throughout Europe. The technique of building high vaults in masonry was revived. A treatment of decoration evolved that had elements drawn from local Pre-Christian traditions and incorporated zig-zags,spirals and fierce animal heads. The typical wall decorations were paintedfrescomurals. Romanesque building techniques spread to England at about the time of theNorman Conquest.[47]
Representative of the period areAbbaye aux Hommes (the Abbey of the Men) inCaen, France;Worms Cathedral in Germany, the Cathedral ofPisa with its famous leaning campanile (bell tower), theCathedral of Cefalù,Modena Cathedral andParma Cathedral in Italy, andDurham Cathedral andPeterborough Cathedral in England.[3][full citation needed][23][full citation needed][24][full citation needed]
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By the mid 12th century many large cathedrals and abbey churches had been constructed and theengineering skills required to build high arches, stone vaults, tall towers and the like, were well established. The style evolved to one that was less heavy, had larger windows, lighter-weight vaulting supported on stone ribs and above all, the pointed arch which is the defining characteristic of the style now known as Gothic. With thinner walls, larger windows and high pointed arched vaults, the distinctiveflying buttresses developed as a means of support. The huge windows were ornamented with stone tracery and filled withstained glass illustrating stories from theBible and thelives of the saints.
Buildings representative of this period includeNotre Dame, Paris;Chartres Cathedral,Reims Cathedral,Rouen Cathedral andStrasbourg Cathedral in France,Antwerp Cathedral in Belgium,Cologne Cathedral,Ulm Minster,Regensburg Cathedral andFreiburg Minster in Germany,St Stephen's CathedralVienna in Austria,Florence Cathedral,Siena Cathedral,Milan Cathedral andSan Lorenzo Maggiore, Naples in Italy,Burgos Cathedral,Toledo Cathedral andLeon Cathedral in Spain,Guarda Cathedral in Portugal,Salisbury Cathedral,Canterbury Cathedral andLincoln Cathedral in England.[3][full citation needed][6][full citation needed][23][full citation needed][39][full citation needed]
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In the early 15th century a competition was held inFlorence for a plan to roof the central crossing of the huge, unfinished GothicFlorence Cathedral. It was won by the artistBrunelleschi who, inspired by domes that he had seen on his travels, such as that ofSan Vitale in Ravenna and the enormous dome of the Roman period which roofed thePantheon, designed a hugedome which is regarded as the first building of the Renaissance period. Its style, visually however, is ribbed and pointed and purely Gothic. It was Renaissance (a rebirth) in its audacity and the fact that it looked back to Roman structural techniques.[48]
Brunelleschi, and others like him, developed a passion for the highly refined style ofRoman architecture, in which the forms and decorations followed rules of placement and proportion that had long been neglected. They sought to rediscover and apply these rules. It was a time of architectural theorising and experimentation. Brunelleschi built two large churches in Florence demonstrating how the new style could be applied,San Lorenzo's andSanto Spirito. They are essays in the Classical, with rows of cylindrical columns,Corinthian capitals,entablatures, semi-circular arches and apsidal chapels.[49]
The greatest cathedral building of the age was the rebuilding of St Peter's Basilica in Rome, the combined work of the architectsBramante,Raphael,Sangallo,Maderno and surmounted byMichelangelo's glorious dome, taller but just one foot narrower than the one that Brunelleschi had built a hundred years earlier inFlorence. The dome is both an external and an internal focus. The chancel and transept arms are identical in shape, thus recalling the Greek Cross plan of Byzantine churches. The nave was, in fact, an addition.[50]
Pope Julius II could command the greatest artists of his day as designers. (The role of architect had not yet become a separate one from painter, sculptor or builder.) The product of these many minds is a massive, glorious and unified whole.[3][full citation needed][5][full citation needed][51][full citation needed]
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By the time that St Peter's was completed, a style of architecture was developed by architects who knew all the rules that had been so carefully recovered, and chose to break them. The effect was a dynamic style of architecture in which the forms seem to take on life of their own, moving, swaying and undulating.[52] The nameBaroque means 'mis-shapen pearl'.[53]
There are many large churches,abbeys, andbasilicas built in this style, but few cathedrals in Western Europe, the most notable exception beingSt Paul's Cathedral in London. St Paul's is an unusual cathedral in that it was designed by a single individual and completed in a short time. The architect wasSir Christopher Wren and the building replaced the ancient cathedral which burnt down in theGreat Fire of 1666. It is in the Baroque style, but it is a very controlled and English sort of Baroque in which Wren creates surprising and dramatic spatial effects, particularly in his use of the dome, which, likeBrunelleschi's dome in Florence, spans not only the nave but also the aisles, opening the whole centre of the church into a vast light space.[54][39][full citation needed][40][full citation needed][55][full citation needed]
In Russia, for the most part, the Baroque style was overlaid as architectonic features on the essentially Byzantine forms used for church construction. Many churches were built in this style, notably theCathedral of the Dormition atSmolensk and the Cathedral of the Presentation atSolvychegodsk. In the design of many churches the Byzantine arrangement of tented roof or onion dome is replaced with a larger dome, usually on a tall, often polygonal, tambour.
Many European cathedrals have baroque features, high altars, façades and chapels. The façades ofSantiago de Compostela, Jaén Cathedral and Valladolid Cathedral in Spain was rebuilt at this time. The Baroque style was carried by the Spanish and Portuguese to South and Central America, to the Philippines and to Goa in India where it was to become the prominent style of building for churches large and small. Both in the Americas and the Philippines, large Baroque churches often have a proportionally very wide façade which seems stretched between the towers. The intensely ornate decoration both in Spain and the Americas is calledChurrigueresque.[56]
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The Rococo style is a late evolution of Baroque architecture, first apparent in French domestic architecture and design. It is distinguished by the asymmetry found within its decoration, generally taking the form of ornate sculpturedcartouches or borders. These decorations are loosely based on organic objects, particularlyseashells and plant growth, but also on other natural forms that have an apparent "organised chaos" such as waves of clouds.[57] The churches that are thus decorated may have strongly Baroquearchitectural form but a general lightness and delicacy of appearance, sometimes described as "playfulness". A number ofpilgrimage churches in Bavaria, Germany, are of this style, most notably theBasilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (Vierzehnheiligen) near Bamberg byJohann Balthasar Neumann, the master and arguably the originator of the style. This combines a relatively staid exterior with a dynamic internal plan and an exquisitely orchestrated decorative scheme of painted ceiling and figurative sculpture, all set in a diverse array of gilded Rococo cartouches. Externally, the façade has a rippling surface, and rises with increasing ornateness to fanciful cupolas that are a hallmark of the churches of Bavaria and much of central and Eastern Europe.[58]
Perhaps the most remarkable large-scale example of Rococo church building was theDresden Frauenkirche, recently rebuilt after its almost total destruction inWorld War II. The entire structures embodies a dynamic, surging motion which combines with a delicacy of architectural detail that is typical of the Rococo style. This church is dominated by its bell-shaped cupola which imitates in form those to be found on countless church towers in the region, but recreated here not in wood sheathed with metal, but as a mighty masonry dome.
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The 18th and 19th centuries were a time of expansion andcolonisation by Western Europeans. It was also a time of much Christian revival and in England, a considerable growth in theRoman Catholic Church. There was also much industrialisation and the growth of towns. New churches and cathedrals were needed. The Medieval styles, and particularly Gothic, were seen as the most suitable for the building of new cathedrals, both in Europe and in the colonies.
Cathedrals in theGothic Revival style includeLiverpool Anglican Cathedral in England, theNew Cathedral, Linz in Austria, theCathedral of St John the Divine in New York andSt Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne in Australia.
Not all of the cathedrals that are in a revivalist style are Gothic.Westminster Cathedral, the seat of the Roman CatholicArchbishop of Westminster, is an eclectic design of predominantly Byzantine style withpolychrome walls, domes and a very tall Italian-stylecampanile.Mary, Queen of the World Cathedral in Canada is aRenaissance revival building based on St Peter's, Rome.[3][full citation needed][39][full citation needed]
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In the 20th century, building in the Medieval style continued, but in a stripped-down, cleanly functional form, often in brick. A fine example isGuildford Cathedral in England. Another isArmidale Anglican Cathedral inAustralia.
After World War II traditionalist ideas were abandoned for the rebuilding of the bombed cathedral in Coventry. The old cathedral was actually a largeparish church that had been elevated to cathedral status. Its glorious spire fortunately escaped severe damage. The 20th centuryCoventry Cathedral, of alternating slabs of masonry and stained glass attempts to capture symbolically the sense of an old cathedral church, without attempting to reproduce it.Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral is the 20th century's answer to the centrally planned church, a vast circular structure with the sanctuary at the centre.[39][full citation needed]
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As with otherPostmodern movements,postmodern architecture formed in reaction to the ideals ofmodernism as a response to the perceived blandness, hostility, and Utopianism of the Modern movement. While rare in designs ofChurch architecture, there are nonetheless some notable examples as architects have begun to recover and renew historical styles and "cultural memory" of Christian architecture. Notable practitioners includeSteven J. Schloeder,Duncan Stroik, and Thomas Gordon Smith.
Thefunctional and formalized shapes and spaces of themodernist movement are replaced by unapologetically diverseaesthetics: styles collide, form is adopted for its own sake, and new ways of viewing familiar styles and space abound. Perhaps most obviously, architects rediscovered the expressive and symbolic value of architectural elements and forms that had evolved through centuries of building—often maintaining meaning in literature, poetry and art—but which had been abandoned by the modern movement.
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