TheCaroline Islands (orthe Carolines) are a widely scatteredarchipelago of tiny islands in the westernPacific Ocean, to the north ofNew Guinea. Politically, they are divided between theFederated States of Micronesia (FSM) in the central and eastern parts of the group, andPalau at the extreme western end. Historically, this area was also calledNuevas Filipinas orNew Philippines,[1] because they were part of theSpanish East Indies and were governed fromManila in thePhilippines.
The Carolines are scattered across a distance of approximately 3,540 kilometres (1,910 nmi), from the westernmost island,Tobi, in Palau, to the easternmost island,Kosrae, astate of the FSM.[2]
The group consists of about 500 smallcoral islands, east of thePhilippines, in the Pacific Ocean. The distance fromYap (one of the larger Caroline islands) toManila is 1,200 mi (1,900 km).[3]
Most of the islands are made up of low, flatcoral atolls, but there are some that rise high above sea level.[4]
"Man and Wife of the 'Pimlingai,' or Slave Class," (1903), photograph byFurness. Illustration fromThe Island of Stone Money: Uap of the Carolines (1910)Women fishing with nets,Chuuk (1899–1900)
The indigenous people of these islands live mainly on horticultural products, fish, many different varieties of bananas, andtaro (either the "swamp" or the "purple" variety). On some islands, housing is still built using local materials such as coconut-palm thatch. As a result ofmissionary work over the centuries,Christianity is the religion most commonly practiced in this region ofMicronesia. Many of the indigenous people adhere to the traditional belief in a supreme being called "Yalafar" and an evil spirit called "Can." For the most part, however, they do not engage in traditional religious rites.[3]
The inhabitants of Yap are noted for possessing an unusual currency. Besides the ordinaryshell money, there is a sort of stone coinage, consisting of hugecalcite orlimestone discs or wheels from 6 inches to 12 feet in diameter, and weighing up to nearly 5 tons. These are all quarried in the Pelew Islands, 200 miles to the south, and must have been brought by native vessels or on rafts; later they were transferred on European vessels. The stones, which are rather tokens than money, do not circulate, but are piled up round about the chief's treasure-house, and appear to be regarded as public property.[4] Some may not have been seen for some years, but the transfer of wealth is facilitated by a common understanding that a stone has a new owner.[5]
The Micronesian navigatorMau Piailug (1932–2010) was originally from the Carolinian island ofSatawal. He learned the traditional navigation techniques of theWeriyeng school, which had been preserved after other traditional techniques had been forgotten (due partly to the remoteness of the Carolinian Islands). In the 1970s, Mau shared his knowledge with members of thePolynesian Voyaging Society. This led to a revival of the practices of traditionalPolynesian navigation techniques, and provided anthropologists with a greater understanding of the history of the Polynesian andMicronesian peoples.[6]
In 1985, a study was published that examined the origin of thesidereal compass used in the Caroline Islands.[7]
Different islands in the Carolines have passed down different legends about the origins and early histories of their peoples. For example, onPohnpei, the islanders describe their history before colonial times as divided into three eras: theMwehin Kawa orMwehin Aramas (era of building or peopling, before 1100); theMwehin Sau Deleur (era of the reigns of theSaudeleur, from 1100[8] to around 1628);[note 1] and theMwehinNahnmwarki (era of the tribal chiefs, from around 1628 to 1885, when Spain colonized the islands).[9][12]
According to Pohnpeian legend: the Saudeleur rulers originally came from beyond the islands; they were the first to bring government to Pohnpei; they imposed absolute, centralized rule on the islanders, which became increasingly oppressive over the centuries; and their arbitrary and onerous demands, along with their offenses against Pohnpeian deities, sowed resentment amongPohnpeians. Legend has it that the Saudeleur dynasty ended when another foreigner, calledIsokelekel, invaded the islands, overthrew the Saudeleurs, and instituted the more decentralizednahnmwarki (tribal chief) system (which was maintained even during the later Colonial period, and still exists today).[14][15][16]
Spanish currency used in the Caroline Islands at the end of the 19th century. Note the German circular punch, made following the Spanish cession of the islands to Germany in 1899.
The first contact that European explorers had with the Caroline islands was in 1525, when a summer storm carried the Portuguese navigatorsDiogo da Rocha andGomes de Sequeira eastward from theMoluccas (by way ofCelebes). They ended up reaching several of the Caroline islands and staying there for several months, until 20 January 1526.[17] Soon after, on 22 August 1526, theSpanish explorersToribio Alonso de Salazar andDiego de Saavedra arrived in the area and recorded sighting the Island of San Bartolomé (Taongui). About 8 months later, on 1 January 1528, the explorerÁlvaro de Saavedra Cerón claimed possession of the Ulithi Islands on behalf of the king ofSpain. He named them theIslands of the Kings (Spanish:Islas de los Reyes;French:Îles des Rois) after his patron and theThree Wise Men honored in the approachingCatholicfeast ofEpiphany. Spanish explorers visited the archipelago again in 1542 (Matelotes Islands), 1543, and 1545. In 1565, the islands were briefly visited by the firstgovernor-general of the Philippines,Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (in office from 1565 to 1572).[18]
Europeans did not visit the island again until 1686, whenFrancisco de Lezcano arrived in Yap. He called the islandsLas Carolinas, in honor ofCharles II of Spain.[4] This name was later extended to include thePalau Islands and the archipelagos that British explorers, visiting them a century later (between 1788 and 1799), would come to call theGilbert Islands and theMarshall Islands (Spaniards today call the Caroline islandsIslas de las Hermanas,Hombres Pintados, andLos Jardines).
A Spanish royal decree, issued on 19 October 1707, authorized Spanish missionaries to make several expeditions to the Caroline Islands. However, in 1731, one such missionary, Juan Antonio Cantova, was killed. As a result,Spain ceased relations with the Caroline Islands. When they resumed relations in 1787, their emphasis was on trade and commerce.[19]
In 1852, a Spanish colonel named Coello suggested to theSpanish government that effective Spanish occupation of the Caroline Islands would help the Spanish engage in trade and commerce with thePhilippines,Australia,New Guinea, and theAmericas. His suggestion was ignored at first, but, in 1885, a Spanish government representative called Butron signed an agreement with the tribal chiefs ofKoror andArtingal establishing Spanish sovereignty over the Caroline Islands. At that point, Spain attempted to impose customs duties on commercial exchanges in the region. However, Spain's previous abandonment of the islands had allowed the establishment of German and British missions on the islands, andGermany and theUnited Kingdomdisputed Spain's right to collect customs revenue. The European powers called onPope Leo XIII to arbitrate this dispute. He decided that Spain would have these rights on the islands west of the164th meridian east, and Germany would have these rights on theMarshall Islands. (He also assigned Germany the right to maintain a naval station in one of the Caroline Islands, but Germany never exercised that right.)[20]
The islands were a popular resort for whaling ships in the 19th century. The first such vessel known to have visited was the London whalerBritannia, which called at Ngatik in December 1793.[21] Such vessels—from Britain, the United States, Australia and elsewhere—came for water, wood, and food and, sometimes, for men willing to serve as crewmen on the vessels. These ships stimulated commerce and were significant vectors for change (both good and ill). The islands most commonly visited wereKosrae,Mokil,Ngatik,Pingelap andPohnpei.
Japan invaded and occupied the islands in 1914 duringWorld War I, as part of their campaign to take andoccupy German colonial possessions.[22] They installed two naval squadrons as part of this occupation. The Western Carolines were controlled by the squadron commanded by Rear AdmiralMatsumura Tatsuo (1868–1932); while the Eastern Carolines were controlled by Vice-AdmiralYamaya Tanin (1866–1940). In 1920, after World War I, Japan received aLeague of Nations mandate to control the Caroline and Marshall Islands.[23] DuringWorld War II, Japan operated a large base atTruk Lagoon which it used for expansion into the southeastern Pacific. In the latter years of that war, during the Japanese withdrawal to the Japanese home islands, the Allies effectively neutralized Truk inOperation Hailstone. After the war, the islands (together with the Marshall Islands) becametrust territories of the United States. TheFederated States of Micronesia gained independence in 1986, followed byPalau in 1994.
TwoJesuits, Juan Antonio Cantova (also known as John Anthony Cantova) and Victor Walter, attempted missionary work there in 1731; the former was soon murdered and the latter obliged to flee. Two other Jesuits were killed later. In 1767, the Jesuits were suppressed in the Spanish dominions, and for the next 120 years there was no trace of a missionary in the islands.[3]
After the 1886 dispute between Germany and Spain over possession of the Carolines was settled byPope Leo XIII in favour of Spain, the king of Spain directed SpanishCapuchins to go to the islands. The royal order was issued on 15 March 1886, and thePropaganda Fide officially established that mission on 15 May 1886, dividing it into two sections, named the West Caroline's and the East Carolines. Until that time, the islands had belonged ecclesiastically to theVicariate Apostolic of Micronesia. The Spanish Capuchins caused acatechism and prayer book to be printed in the Ponape language, and Father Anthony of Valentia wrote a small grammar and dictionary of the Yap language in 1890.[3]
In 1899, after the Spanish priests had laid the foundations of the mission, the islands passed by purchase into the hands of Germany. Spain had contributed more than $5,000 a year towards the mission, but Germany contributed no support. Spain had compelled the indigenous people to send their children to school; Germany allowed people to choose to send their children or not. As a result, many people stopped attending church and sending their children to school, and the mission's fortunes suffered. In response, thePropaganda Fide decided on 7 November 1904 to replace the Spanish Capuchins with German missionaries, and on 18 December 1905 to erect a single Apostolic prefecture in place of the two separate missions. The Very Reverend Father Venantius ofPrechtal, Germany, was appointed first prefect Apostolic at that time.[3]
In 1906, 24 missionaries (12 Fathers and 12 Brothers) were working in 13 stations, and severalSisters of St. Francis leftLuxembourg to take charge of the 10 primary schools, in which a total of 262 children were enrolled. The missionaries boasted 90 adult converts that year, and reported that there were 1900 Catholics, a few Protestants, and 11,600 inhabitants who had not converted to Christianity.
On 1 July 1905, theUnited States sent a Jesuit from theManila Observatory to the island of Yap to erect ameteorological station there, and appointed the Capuchin Father Callistus as its director. The station was able to identify that theEast-Asiatictyphoons were originating in the Carolines. The station made weather observations twice a day, and sent advance notice of severe weather to Manila.[3]
Transportation within the islands is either by boat or air (if in close proximity of an airfield).Air travel is mostly domestic as most facilities cannot handle large aircraft.Caroline Islands Air is a chartered and the only domestic airline.
Palau and Yap are the only places outside the Philippines whereCallicarpa micrantha is native.[24]
Campnosperma brevipetiolatum was first named and classified by the German botanistGeorg Volkens while carrying out research on Yap. He described the species in 1901 in the article 'Die Vegetation der Karolinen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der von Yap' in the periodicalBotanische Jahrbücher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie(Leipzig).[25][26]
Psychotria hombroniana is endemic to the Caroline and Mariana Islands, with five subspecies being found on the Carolines, and three subspecies on the Marianas.[28][29][30][31][32]
Three of the four species in the genusPonapea are endemic to the Caroline Islands.[33]
^The Saudeleur era lasted around 500 years.[9] Legend generally dates their downfall to the 1500s,[10] however archaeologists date Saudeleur ruins to c. 1628.[11][12][13]
^Goldstein, Jacob; Kestenbaum, David (10 December 2010)."The Island Of Stone Money".NPR – Planet Money. NPR.Archived from the original on 17 May 2015. Retrieved24 August 2010."But the stone doesn't move. It's just that everybody in the village knows the stone now has a new owner."
^Flood, Bo; Strong, Beret E.; Flood, William (2002).Micronesian Legends. Bess Press. pp. 145–7, 160.ISBN1-57306-129-8.Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved1 January 2012.
^Riesenberg, Saul H (1968).The Native Polity of Ponape. Contributions to Anthropology. Vol. 10. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 38, 51.ISBN9780598442437.Archived from the original on 16 June 2013. Retrieved1 January 2012.
^Petersen, Glenn (1990)."Lost in the Weeds: Theme and Variation in Pohnpei Political Mythology"(PDF).Occasional Papers.35. Center for Pacific Islands Studies, School of Hawaiian, Asian & Pacific Studies, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa: ch. 5. "Isokelekel", pp. 34 et seq.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 January 2012. Retrieved31 December 2011.
^Robert Langdon (ed.)Where the whalers went: an index to the Pacific Ports and islands visited by American whalers (and some other ships) in the 19th century, Canberra, Pacific Manuscripts Bureau, p.10.ISBN0-86784-471-X
^Dransfield, John; Uhl, Natalie W.; Asmussen, Conny B.; Baker, William J.; Harley, Madeline M.; Lewis, Carl E. (2008).Genera Palmarum: The Evolution and Classification of Palms. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.ISBN978-1-84246-182-2.
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