Carnelian (also spelledcornelian)[3] is a brownish-redmineral commonly used as asemiprecious stone. Similar to carnelian issard, which is generally harder and darker; the difference is not rigidly defined, and the two names are often used interchangeably. Both carnelian and sard are varieties of thesilica mineralchalcedony colored by impurities ofiron oxide. The color can vary greatly, ranging from pale orange to an intense almost-black coloration. Significant localities includeYanacodo, Peru andRatnapura, Sri Lanka.[2] It has been found inIndonesia,Brazil,India,Iran,Russia (Siberia), andGermany.[4]
The red variety of chalcedony has been known to be used as beads since the Early Neolithic in Bulgaria. The first faceted (with constant 16+16=32 facets on each side of the bead) carnelian beads are described from the VarnaChalcolithic necropolis (middle of the 5th millennium BC).[5] Thebow drill was used to drill holes into carnelian inMehrgarh in the 4th–5th millennium BC.[6]Etched carnelian beads were manufactured by the Indus Valley Civilization during the 3rd millennium BCE. Carnelian was recovered fromBronze AgeMinoan layers atKnossos onCrete in a form that demonstrated its use in decorative arts;[7] this use dates to approximately 1800BC. Carnelian was used widely during Roman times to makeengraved gems for signet orseal rings for imprinting a seal with wax on correspondence or other important documents, as hot wax does not stick to carnelian.[8] Sard was used forAssyriancylinder seals,Egyptian andPhoenicianscarabs, and earlyGreek and Etruscan gems.[9] TheHebrewodem (also translated assardius), was the first stone in theHigh Priest's breastplate, a red stone, probably sard but perhaps redjasper.[9] InRevelation 4:3, the One seated on the heavenly throne seen in the vision ofJohn the Apostle is said to "look like jasper andσαρδίῳ (sardius transliterated)." And likewise it is in Revelation 21:20 as one of the precious stones in the foundations of the wall of the heavenly city.[10]
There is aNeo-Assyrian seal made of carnelian in the Western Asiatic Seals collection of theBritish Museum that showsIshtar-Gula as a star goddess. She is holding a ring of royal authority and is seated on a throne. She is shown with the spade ofMarduk (his symbol), Sibbiti (seven) gods, the stylus ofNabu and a worshiper. An 8th century BC carnelian seal from the collection of theAshmolean Museum in Oxford shows Ishtar-Gula with her dog facing the spade of Marduk and his red dragon.[11]
Although now the more common term, "carnelian" is a 16th-century corruption of the 14th-century word "cornelian" (and its associated orthographies corneline and cornalyn).[12] Cornelian, cognate with similar words in severalRomance languages, comes from theMediaeval Latincorneolus, itself derived from theLatin wordcornum, thecornel cherry,[13] whose translucent red fruits resemble the stone. TheOxford English Dictionary calls "carnelian" a perversion of "cornelian," by subsequent analogy with the Latin wordcaro, carnis ("flesh"). According toPliny the Elder, sard derived its name from the city ofSardis inLydia from which it came, and according to others, may ultimately be related to thePersian wordسرد (sered, "yellowish-red").[9] Another possible derivation is from the Greekσάρξ (sarx, "flesh"); compare the surer etymology ofonyx, which comes from Greekὄνυξ (onyx, "claw, fingernail"), presumably because onyx with flesh-colored and white bands can resemble a fingernail.[14]
The names carnelian and sard are often used interchangeably, but they can also be used to describe distinct subvarieties. The general differences are as follows:[9]
Comparison of carnelian and sard
Aspect
Carnelian
Sard
Color
Lighter, with shades ranging from orange to reddish brown
Darker, with shades ranging from a deep reddish brown to almost black
Hardness
Softer
Harder and tougher
Fracture
Uneven, splintery and conchoidal
Like carnelian, but duller and more hackly (having the appearance of something that has been hacked, i.e. jagged)
All of these properties vary across a continuum, so the boundary between carnelian and sard is inherently blurry.
Indian carnelian beads, white design etched with acid, imported to Susa in 2600–1700 BC. Found in thetell of theSusa acropolis.Louvre Museum, reference Sb 17751.[15][16][17] These beads are identical with beads found in the Indus Civilization site ofDholavira.[18]
Egyptian necklace with biconical carnelian beads, rolled strips of sheet gold, and ten amulets.[19] TheWalters Art Museum,Baltimore.
Allchin, B. 1979. "The agate and carnelian industry of Western India and Pakistan". – In:South Asian Archaeology 1975. E. J. Brill, Leiden, 91–105.
Beck, H. C. 1933. "Etched carnelian beads". –The Antiquaries Journal, 13, 4, 384–398.
Bellina, B. 2003. "Beads, social change and interaction between India and South-east Asia". –Antiquity, 77, 296, 285–297.
Brunet, O. 2009. "Bronze and Iron Age carnelian bead production in the UAE and Armenia: new perspectives". –Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, 39, 57–68.
Carter, A. K., L. Dussubieux. 2016. "Geologic provenience analysis of agate and carnelian beads using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS): A case study from Iron Age Cambodia and Thailand". –J. Archeol. Sci.: Reports, 6, 321–331.
Cornaline de l'Inde.Des pratiques techniques de Cambay aux techno-systèmes de l'Indus (Ed. J.-C. Roux). 2000. Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme, Paris, 558 pp.
Glover, I. 2001. "Cornaline de l'Inde. Des pratiques techniques de Cambay aux techno-systèmes de l'Indus (sous la direction de V. Roux). –Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient, 88, 376–381.
Inizan, M.-L. 1999. "La cornaline de l’Indus à la Mésopotamie, production et circulation: la voie du Golfe au IIIe millénaire". – In:Cornaline et pierres précieuses. De Sumer à l'Islam (Ed. by F. Tallon), Musée du Louvre, Paris, 127–140.
Insoll, T., D. A. Polya, K. Bhan, D. Irving, K. Jarvis. 2004. "Towards an understanding of the carnelian bead trade from Western India to sub-Saharan Africa: the application of UV-LA-ICP-MS to carnelian from Gujarat, India, and West Africa". –J. Archaeol. Sci., 31, 8, 1161–1173.
Kostov, R. I.; Pelevina, O. (2008). "Complex faceted and other carnelian beads from the Varna Chalcolithic necropolis: archaeogemmological analysis".Proceedings of the International Conference "Geology and Archaeomineralogy". Sofia, 29–30 October 2008. Sofia: Publishing House "St. Ivan Rilski":67–72.
Mackay, E. 1933. "Decorated carnelian beads". –Man, 33, Sept., 143–146.
Theunissen, R. 2007. "The agate and carnelian ornaments". – In:The Excavations of Noen U-Loke and Non Muang Kao (Eds. C. Higham, A. Kijngam, S. Talbot). The Thai Fine Arts Department, Bangkok, 359–377.
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![Necklace with gold beads and carnelian beads, Cypriot artwork with Mycenaean inspiration, c. 1400–1200 BC.[citation needed] From Enkomi. British Museum.](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCornelian_necklace_BM_GR1897.4-1.623.jpg)
![Indian carnelian beads, white design etched with acid, imported to Susa in 2600–1700 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 17751.[15][16][17] These beads are identical with beads found in the Indus Civilization site of Dholavira.[18]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aIndus_carnelian_beads_with_white_design_imported_to_Susa_in_2600-1700_BCE_LOUVRE_Sb_13099.jpg)
![Egyptian necklace with biconical carnelian beads, rolled strips of sheet gold, and ten amulets.[19] The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEgyptian_-_Necklace_-_Walters_571515_-_Detail_F.jpg)
