Rubbia was born in 1934 inGorizia, an Italian town on the border withSlovenia. His family moved toVenice thenUdine because of wartime disruption. His father was an electrical engineer and encouraged him to study the same, though he stated his wish to study physics. In the local countryside, he collected and experimented with abandoned military communications equipment. After taking an entrance exam for theScuola Normale Superiore di Pisa to study physics, he failed to get into the required top ten (coming eleventh), so began an engineering course inMilan in 1953. Soon after, a Pisa student dropped out, presenting Rubbia with his opportunity. He gained a degree and doctorate in a relatively short time with a thesis on cosmic ray experimentation; his adviser wasMarcello Conversi. At Pisa, he met his future wife, Marisa, also a physics student.[9][10][11][12][13]
Following his degree, he went to the United States to dopostdoctoral research,[1] where he spent about one and a half years atColumbia University[14] performing experiments on the decay and the nuclear capture ofmuons. This was the first of a long series of experiments that Rubbia has performed in the field ofweak interactions and which culminated in the Nobel Prize-winning work at CERN.
He moved back to Europe for a placement at theUniversity of Rome before joining the newly foundedCERN in 1960, where he worked on experiments on the structure of weak interactions. CERN had just commissioned a new type of accelerator, theIntersecting Storage Rings, using counter-rotating beams ofprotons colliding against each other. Rubbia and his collaborators conducted experiments there, again studying the weak force. The main results in this field were the observation of the structure in the elastic scattering process and the first observation of thecharmed baryons. These experiments were crucial in order to perfect the techniques needed later for the discovery of more exotic particles in a different type of particle collider.[9][11][13]
In 1976, he suggested adapting CERN'sSuper Proton Synchrotron (SPS) to collide protons and antiprotons in the same ring – theProton-Antiproton Collider. UsingSimon van der Meers technology ofstochastic cooling, theAntiproton Accumulator was also built. The collider started running in 1981 and, in early 1983, an international team of more than 100 physicists headed by Rubbia and known as the UA1 Collaboration, detected the intermediate vector bosons, theW and Z bosons, which had become a cornerstone of modern theories ofelementary particle physics long before this direct observation. They carry the weak force that causesradioactive decay in theatomic nucleus and controls the combustion of theSun, just asphotons, massless particles of light, carry theelectromagnetic force which causes most physical and biochemical reactions. The weak force also plays a fundamental role in thenucleosynthesis of the elements, as studied in theories of stars evolution. These particles have a mass almost 100 times greater than the proton. In 1984 Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer were awarded the Nobel Prize "for their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction".[citation needed]
To achieve energies high enough to create these particles, Rubbia, together with David Cline and Peter McIntyre, proposed a radically new particle accelerator design. They proposed to use a beam ofprotons and a beam ofantiprotons, theirantimatter twins, counter-rotating in the vacuum pipe of the accelerator and colliding head-on. The idea of creating particles by colliding beams of more "ordinary" particles was not new: electron-positron and proton-proton colliders were already in use. However, by the late 1970s / early 1980s those could not approach the needed energies in the centre of mass to explore the W/Z region predicted by theory. At those energies, protons colliding with anti-protons were the best candidates, but how to obtain sufficiently intense (and well-collimated) beams of anti-protons, which are normally produced by impinging a beam of protons on a fixed target? Van den Meer had in the meantime developed the concept of "stochastic cooling", in which particles, like anti-protons, could be kept in a circular array, and their beam divergence reduced progressively by sending signals to bending magnets downstream. Since decreasing the divergence of the beam meant to reduce transverse velocity or energy components, the suggestive term "stochastic cooling" was given to the scheme. The scheme could then be used to "cool" (to collimate) the anti-protons, which could thus be forced into a well-focused beam, suitable for acceleration to high energies, without losing too many anti-protons to collisions with the structure. Stochastic expresses the fact that signals to be taken resemble random noise, which was called "Schottky noise" when first encountered in vacuum tubes. Without van der Meer's technique, UA1 would never have had the sufficient high-intensity anti-protons it needed. Without Rubbia's realisation of its usefulness, stochastic cooling would have been the subject of a few publications and nothing else. Simon van de Meer developed and tested the technology in the proton Intersecting Storage Rings at CERN, but it is most effective on rather low-intensity beams, such as the anti-protons which were prepared for use in the SPS when configured as a collider.[citation needed]
In 1970, Rubbia was appointed Higgins Professor of Physics atHarvard University, where he spent one semester per year for 18 years,[1] while continuing his research activities at CERN. In 1989, he was appointed Director-General of the CERN Laboratory.[15] During his mandate, in 1993, "CERN agreed to allow anybody to use the Web protocol and code free of charge … without any royalty or other constraint".[16]
Rubbia has also been one of the leaders in a collaboration effort deep in theGran Sasso Laboratory, designed to detect any sign of decay of the proton. The experiment seeks evidence that would disprove the conventional belief that matter is stable. The most widely accepted version of the unified field theories predicts that protons do not last forever, but gradually decay into energy after an average lifetime of at least 1032 years. The same experiment, known asICARUS and based on a new technique of electronic detection of ionizing events in ultra-pure liquidargon, is aiming at the direct detection of the neutrinos emitted from the Sun, a first rudimentary neutrino telescope to explore neutrino signals of cosmic nature.[citation needed]
Rubbia further proposed the concept of anenergy amplifier, a novel and safe way of producing nuclear energy exploiting present-day accelerator technologies, which is actively being studied worldwide in order to incinerate high-activity waste from nuclear reactors, and produce energy from naturalthorium and depleteduranium. In 2013 he proposed building a large number of small-scale thorium power plants.[17]
Rubbia was principal Scientific Adviser ofCIEMAT (Spain), a member of the high-level Advisory Group onglobal warming set up by EU's President Barroso in 2007 and of the board of trustees at theIMDEA Energy Institute. In 2009–2010, he was Special Adviser for Energy to the Secretary General of ECLAC, the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America, based in Santiago (Chile). In June 2010, Rubbia was appointed Scientific Director of the Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies in Potsdam (Germany). He is a member of theItaly-USA Foundation. During his term as President ofENEA (1999–2005) he promoted a novel method forconcentrating solar power at high temperatures for energy production, known as theArchimede Project, which is being developed by industry for commercial use.[citation needed]
Rubbia is also openly a believer, as his book shows, published by Rizzoli,The temptation to believe.[18] He is also a member of thePontifical Academy of Sciences.[19]
^Berners-Lee, T., Fischetti, M., & Foreword By-Dertouzos, M. L. (2000). Weaving the Web: The original design and ultimate destiny of the World Wide Web by its inventor. HarperInformation.
