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| History | |
|---|---|
 Soviet Union | |
| Name | Tuapse (Russian:Туапсе) |
| Owner | Black Sea Shipping Company |
| Port of registry | Odessa, Soviet Union |
| Builder | Burmeister & Wain,Copenhagen,Denmark |
| Launched | 1953 |
| Fate | Captured by theROC Navy in 1954 |
 Republic of China | |
| Name | ROCSKuaiji, AOG-306 (會稽) |
| Acquired | 23 June 1954 |
| Commissioned | 20 October 1955 |
| Decommissioned | 1 October 1965 |
| General characteristics | |
| Class & type | Apsheron-class,oil tanker |
| Tonnage | 13,200 DWT |
| Displacement | 18,000 t (17,716 long tons) |
| Length | 149.14 m (489 ft 4 in) |
| Beam | 19.16 m (62 ft 10 in) |
| Draft | 8.36 m (27.4 ft) |
| Propulsion | 6DKR 74/160, 5,530 shp (4,120 kW) |
| Speed | 14.5knots (16.7 mph; 26.9 km/h) |
| Range | 7knots (8.1 mph; 13 km/h) |
| Complement | 49 |
| Armament | None |
Thecapture of the tankerTuapse occurred on 23 June 1954, when a civilian Soviet ship was captured and confiscated by theRepublic of China Navy in thehigh seas near thePhilippines and the sailors were detained inTaiwan for various periods with three deaths, until the last four were released in 1988.[1][2]
On 18 June 1949 during theChinese Civil War, theGovernment of the Republic of China (ROC) declared theClosed Port Policy to establish an actual aerial andnaval blockade of trade with thePeople's Republic of China (PRC) along the Chinese coast fromLiao River toMin River area,[3][4] which was extended to includeGuangdong on 12 February 1950.[5] TheExecutive Yuan issued an emergency measure applying to domestic vessels, crews and companies to strengthen the trade ban onChina on 16 August 1950,[6] however theKuomintang government extended the practice to foreign vessels and even in the international waters against the internationallaw of the sea and theadmiralty laws.[7][8][9]
The New York Times reported that 67 foreign civilian ships were attacked by local pirates between September 1949 and October 1954, as half of them wereBritish vessels, whereas actually 141 interference incidents were reported by theRoyal Navy in the routine "Formosa Strait Patrol" operations since October 31, 1949,[10] and recorded in 37British diplomatic protestation documents,[11][12] with each containing multiple protests up to seven attacks,[13] showing the anti-British atmosphere within the ROC and the KMT high-rank circle, even on the armed intervention of the Royal Navy escorting the British vessels from ROCN warships.[14][11][1] TheWestern Enterprise Incorporated (WEI), supported by theOffice of Policy Coordination of theCentral Intelligence Agency, assisted in the operations.[15][16]
On 13 February 1951, a fleet of 3 ROCSdestroyers under the direct orders ofROC PresidentChiang Kai-shek captured theNorwegian civilian cargo shipHoi Houw at 24°13'N 123°18'E within Japanese waters among theYaeyama Islands.[10] On 17–19 February, the British civilian mercantileNigelock (formerHMSNigella K19,Flower-class corvette), full of fruits and vegetables, and the freighterJosephine Moller were attacked byROC Anti-Communist National Salvation Army [zh] (ACNSA, under the command of GeneralHu Zongnan) gunboats near theChekiang coast in the East China Sea, but both escaped.[17] On 15 April 1951, thePanamanian civilian cargo shipPerico was captured by the ROC Navy at 25°31'N 123°48'E, north ofTaketomi Island.[10] By 7 December 1952, Captain Robert Adam was also killed bymachine gun without warning even though his British freighterRosita had cooperated in the full stop off theFuzhousea lane; then Rosita was hijacked and sailed toMatsu before being released.[18][12][13] Nonetheless, she was attacked again next year, marking her thirteenth time since 1950.[19]
Nevertheless, the piracy activities of attack, killing and confiscation known to theParliament of the United Kingdom,British Hong Kong andAustralian media coverages intensified in the summer of 1953 afterJoseph Stalin's death and theKorean Armistice Agreement.[19][18][12][10] On 26 July, the British freighterInchkilda (former SSFort WilhelmusN3-S-A2) was attacked by 3 ROC-ACNSA gunboats south of theWuqiu region, and was rescued byHMSUnicorn (I72,light aircraft carrier) after receiving the distress call;[20][21] thenInchkilda was seized by the ROC Navy again on 24 October 1954, but received British and American diplomatic support to be released.[22] On 16 August 1953,Nigelock was captured by the ROC Navy toward theMagong military port inPenghu, but was rescued byHMSSt Brides Bay (K600,Bay-class frigate);[23] it was intercepted again by ROCSHuangpu PC-105 (PC-461-class submarine chaser) and was rescued by thedestroyerHMSCockade (R34) on 24 August.[24][25] TheItalian civilian freighterMaribu was also attacked by gunboats on 31 July 1953, and theDanish civilian freighterHeinrich Jessen on 9 August - both were hijacked first to theKinmen sea area to shift members, then formally confiscated inKeelung.[10] At 18:00, 4 October, 2 ROCS destroyers captured thePolish civilian oil tankerPraca with 9,019 tons of cargo at 21°06'N 122°48'E in the WestPacific Ocean, 125nautical miles southeast of Taiwan. 29 Polish sailors and 17 Chinese sailors from the PRC were transferred to a military detention center inZuoying.[26]
In early April 1954, theROC Air Force and Navy conducted a carpet search for theCzechoslovak civilian cargo shipJulius Fucik, but failed to catch her in the Yaeyama sea area of the Pacific Ocean.[10] At 14:20, 12 May, another Polish civilian cargo ship, thePrezydent Gottwald, carrying 7,066 tons of lathes and medicines, was shelled by a fleet of 3 ROCS destroyers, at 20°30'N, 128°07'E, east ofBatanes Islands and south ofOkinawa Island. It was then attacked again at 15:20 and captured at 23°45'N 128°35'E. 33 Polish sailors and 12 Chinese sailors from the PRC were first detained inKeelung, then transferred to Zuoying together.[10][27] The victim sailors' families of both Polish ships appealed to theUnited Nations Economic and Social Council Session 18 on ROC's piracy conducts on high sea obstructing international trade and cooperation.[10]
The tankerPraca was renamed ROCSHelan (AOG-305,賀蘭) and thetransportPrezydent Gottwald was renamed ROCSTianzhu (AK-313,天竺), and both were commissioned into the ROC Navy.[28] 61 out of 62 Polish sailors were released through Polish and United States diplomatic intervention, while one was found dead in a park with signs of torture,[29] while the 29 Chinese sailors were imprisoned in theGreen Island Prison. 11 were rescued by theInternational Committee of the Red Cross in 1956, 3 staff leaders were executed, 1 died in prison, and 5 died due to sickness or accidents. Eventually 5 survivors were released and returned to the PRC aftermartial law was lifted in 1987, and 4 chose to stay in Taiwan.[26][30]
On 21 June 1954, the civilian tankerTuapse with 49 crew members, which sailed fromOdessa and was loaded with 11,702 tons ofRomaniankerosene fromConstanța in theBlack Sea with the scheduled delivery toShanghai andVladivostok, arrived inVictoria Harbour inBritish Hong Kong to resupply. On 23 June it passed through theinternational seaway ofBalintang Channel in Bashi Straits, eastbound toward the westPacific Ocean.[31] It was intercepted at19°35′00″N120°39′00″E / 19.58333°N 120.65000°E /19.58333; 120.65000 north ofLuzon Island by a ROC taskforce led by Admiral Ma Ji-zhuang (馬紀壯上將),Commander-in-Chief of the ROC Navy,[8][32][33] in charge on board theflagshipTan Yang DD-12 (formerJapanese Imperial NavyYukikaze, transferred to ROCS afterWWII[34]), with the permission of President Chiang Kai-shek to sink the target if encountering resistance. Three rounds of127 mm navalDP gun shots were fired near the bow to force the oil tanker in full stop, then an assault team led byCaptain Chiu Zhong-ming (邱仲明上校, who had also led the assault on thePrezydent Gottwald two months earlier) with over 100seamen andmarines boarded to seize the ship, then Admiral Ma himself moved to Tuapse in command.[27] Three sailors trying to save the Soviet flag ripped off by soldiers were struck down by rifle butts, and two engineers proceeding the mechanical self-destruction sequence were beat up hard by seamen breaking into the engineering room.[35] The ship with its oil content was towed to thePort of Kaohsiung for intelligence examination with samples collected for chemical analysis inOkinawa, and the oil was immediately pumped out to the military storage.[36] The crew, including the only female crew,bartender Olga Popov, were divided in 3 groups roughly by age to be transported to different locations for interrogation with no cross contact to each other allowed, and Captain Vitaly A. Kalinin was denied permission to visit the other groups.[37][36] ROC military later claimed that such isolation measures as the required humanitarian help due to the captain ordering the crew in hunger strike protest.[38]
Tuapse's finaldistress signal before the radio station was silenced and smashed was transmitted throughVladivostok to Moscow and Odessa.[37] Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs of USSR,V.A. Zorin, summoned the Ambassador of USA,Charles Bohlen inMoscow on 24 June 1954 to deliver a strong protest; the ROC Government admitted to the operation on 25 June.[39] TheBlack Sea Shipping Company continued to distribute the victims' wages to their families throughout the following years.[35]
British, Danish, Polish, Soviet and other victim states' representatives to theUnited Nations denounced thepiracy conducts and "violation offreedom of navigation" in theGeneral Assembly Session 9 on 30 September, but unable to pass a concrete agreement till December.[40][10][38] Polish and Soviet appeals to theInternational Court and theInternational Law Commission (Session 9, 1957) did not succeed because ROC being apermanent member state of theUN Security Council could not fit in the traditional non-state "pirate" definition.[10][9] ASoviet task force of a destroyer and afrigate arrived offshore of Keelung Naval Base in early July,[41] and the governments ofAustralia andNew Zealand also expressed the concerns on ROC's actions providing the USSR a pretext to strengthen its naval presence in the western Pacific Ocean.[42] U.S. AmbassadorKarl L. Rankin inTaipei officially urged the release of ship and crew on 9 July, and visited theROC Minister of Foreign Affairs,George Yeh, in sick leave at home over night;[43] Head of theOffice of Chinese Affairs in USDOS,Walter P. McConaughy also talked with ROC AmbassadorWellington Koo on 16 July, Whereas theAmbassador of the United States to the United Nations,Henry Lodge later also recalled in the letter toSecretary of StateDulles that PresidentDwight Eisenhower wrote several letters to Chiang to appeal for returning the tanker, but none of them could change Chiang's mind.[43][41]Chiang Ching-kuo, the Director ofPolitical Warfare Bureau, attempted to induce the statements of sailors to demandpolitical asylum to score an epicpropaganda victory with theAnti-Communist Hero image in theCold War;[44][45] TheFirst Lady,Soong Mei-ling led the representatives of Chinese Women's Anti-Communist and Anti-Russian League (中華婦女反共抗俄聯合會) to the persuasion visit. They were invited to a party in theSeven Seas Residence, rowing boats in theBitan Lake,[45] then the bar visits at nights, and the ladies were also offered along with videotaping for the propaganda record.[41][46][47]
A declassified CIA briefing to theWhite House andUnited States National Security Council revealed that theshipping insurance premium crossing theSouth China Sea had increased from 1% to 5% since 24 June after the Tuapse Incident, and certaininternational liners had been deterred midway at theSingapore Port unable to continue or had to change plans.[48] ThePLA Air Force moved in theHainan Island for the first time in history to secure another transport route throughYulin andHuangpu ports,[48] but accidentallyshot down aDouglas DC-4 (VR-HEU)airliner of theCathay Pacific Airways with 10 deaths on 23 July.[43] TwoU.S. aircraft carriers,USSHornet andUSSPhilippine Sea (CV-47) arrived for a rescue mission on 26 July and shot down 2 PLAAFLavochkin La-11fighters east ofDazhou Island.[49] On 2 August, Commander ofPLA inCMC,Peng Dehuai convened an executive meeting to establish the tactical command for theEast China Military Region as perMao Zedong's directive to open another front.[50][51]
TheFirst Taiwan Strait Crisis started on 3 September 1954.[52] On 8 September, A colonel arrived to announce the order of ROCChief of the General Staff, GeneralPeng Meng-chi (彭孟緝上將, aka. "Kaohsiung Butcher" due to his brutality against civilians during theFeb. 28 Massacre and theWhite Terror era[53][54]) to the crew, declaring that "TheThird World War has begun - the tanker and cargo have been confiscated, and the crew are officially treated asprisoners of war",[36] then they were beaten, tortured and received only starving rations, causing hearing, vision, teeth and finger damages.[35] Sailor L. Anfilov lost all his teeth; N. Voronov tried to escape, but was seized and placed in a psychiatric facility and subjected to mock executions; Engineer Ivan Pavlenko slashed his own throat with a blade to commit suicide, but did not die.[35] 20 youngUkrainian,Russian andMoldovan sailors under pressure signed an application demanding for political asylum in the United States.[55]
On 8 September 1954, eight nations including the United Kingdom, United States, France, Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines,... signed the Manila Pact to form thecollective defense allianceSoutheast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), but ROC was subsequently opposed and excluded, then was never able to join another regional security organization in the twentieth century.[56] The adversities of crisis management argued the rational integrity within thepolicy making structure and processing among the government branches as various factors such as public opinions, moral principles, international laws, allies' positions, and policy announcements had little effects in consideration to avoid the contradiction accumulating until the outbreak of conflicts forcing in response and losing control on initiatives.[57]
TheBattle of Yijiangshan Islands began on 18 January 1955 withMikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s andIlyushin Il-10sscrambling for theaerial domination,[58][59] followed by thedecisive retreat in theBattle of Dachen Archipelago till 26 February.[60][61] TheKuomintang had lost the strategic control on theEast China Sea, and the WEI was dissolved with the remaining intelligence operations transferred to theNaval Auxiliary Coordinations Center, (NACC) under the direct supervision ofUnited States Navy.[41][46][62]Secretary of StateJohn F. Dulles arrived in Taiwan to meet PresidentChiang Kai-shek on 3 March as theSino-American Mutual Defense Treatycame into force to secure theTaiwan Strait,[63][1] and tried to persuade him to release the ship and the crew but Chiang still disagreed.[64] TheSoviet Government demanded theFrench Government mediate. Another request was also made through theSwedish Red Cross. As a result of international joint efforts and pressure in 9 months (October 1 - July 26), Chiang eventually agreed to release 29 crew members who did not sign the asylum application, including Captain Kalinin. They were transferred through Taipei, Hong Kong, then arrived inMoscow by plane on 30 July.[44]
Next day on 31 July, PRC returned 11 Americanservicemen who were on aUSAFB-29bomber shot down above theYalu River area inNorth Korea on 12 January 1953.[65][41] One day later on 1 August, the PRC ambassador toPoland,Wang Bingnan met the United States Ambassador toCzechoslovakia,U. Alexis Johnson inGeneva,Switzerland to establish the first direct communication channel in history later known as the "Warsaw Talks" for diplomatic normalization, which Chiang strongly opposed.[66][67] One week later on 8 August,the United States Embassy to Japan began to investigate the piracy attack with casualties on theRyukyuan fishery boatDaisan Seitoku Maru (第三正德丸) by two gunboats of about 40 soldiers wearing the ROC flags and uniforms on the disputedterritorial water 25°44'N, 123°28'E ofSenkaku Islands on 2 March,[68] where the ROC-ACNSA shortly stationed after the Dachen Retreat,[69] but theROC Ministry of National Defense (MND) denied all the over fifty presented evidence, and claimed that they were framed by a PRC spy operation. The Japanese ship owner also arrived in Taipei to appeal a civil lawsuit, but was denied of compensation later.[68]
Since 25 May 1955, thesecret police ofBureau of Investigation and Statistics (BIS) under the command ofMao Renfeng had started to arrest the subordinates of GeneralSun Li-jen to interrogate with torture for beingpro-American in an allegedlycoup d'état to collaborate with the CIA to take control of Taiwan to declare the independence;[70][71][72] till October, over 300 officers were arrested and imprisoned for the high treason by the conspired revolt with the Communist spies. Sun was also put in the house arrest for 33 years until 20 March 1988, only shortly before the release of the crew ofTuapse,Praca andPrezydent Gottwald.[73][72]
Chiang was upset that the British merchandise liners still passing through the "Bandit Area" (匪區) daily in October 1955, after the ROC Air Force bombing had sunk the British civilian shipEdendale in theShantou Port on 19 January, so he ordered that theROC Armed Forces can "sink one vessel to show that we are serious." (擊沉一艘，以表明我們的認真態度).[74][10]United States SenatorWayne Morse and SenatorEstes Kefauver proposed to impose theUnited Nations Trusteeship of Taiwan to replace the Chiang'sKuomintang regime,[75] which led to the1959 Conlon Report byRobert A. Scalapino of theHarvard University recommending the independentRepublic of Taiwan as a resolution,[75] whereasThomas Liao had convened the Provisional Congress of the Republic of Formosa in Japan on 1 September 1955,[76] and elected the President of theRepublic of Taiwan Provisional Government inTokyo on 28 February 1956.[76]
TankerTuapse was renamed ROCSKuaiji (AOG-306,會稽), commissioned in the ROC Navy with 22commissioned officers and 88enlisted rank seamen on 20 October 1955, to deliveraviation fuel forROCAF monthly alongshore before the transitpipeline across the island was constructed.[31]Taiwan Navigation Co., Ltd. tried to acquire the ship in 1960, but was turned down because the ship was registered as stolen vessel with theIMO/IMB, so it could not enter theterritorial waters ofUN countries; the ship was often idle in port.[26][41] She was retired on 1 October 1965, and laid down permanently inKaohsiung Harbor.[41]
Chieftelegraphist Michael Ivankov-Nikolov, accountant Nikolay I. Vaganov, Valentin A. Lukashkov, Viktor M. Ryabenko, Alexander P. Shirin, Mikhail I. Shishin, Viktor S. Tatarnikov, Venedikt P. Eremenko and Viktor Solovyov left with the assistance of theChurch World Service to the United States in October 1955.[77] Two of them appeared in aVoice of America (VOA) radio broadcast to criticize the Soviet system;[78] but in April 1956, Vaganov, Lukashkov, Ryabenko, Shirin and Shishin appeared at theSoviet Embassy and returned to the USSR.[79] Vaganov was arrested in 1963 for theAnti-Soviet agitation on the VOA broadcast,[78] and sentenced by theGorky Regional Court to ten years in prison fortreason.[36][79] He served seven years and waspardoned in 1970. In August 1992, thePresidium of theNizhny Novgorod Regional Court recognized Vaganov as correctly convicted, but he was eventuallyrehabilitated by theSupreme Court of the Russian Federation. Eremenko and Tatarnikov joined theUnited States Army. Solovyov settled inNew York.[77]
In 1959, the Odessa Regional Court sentencedin absentia the sailors who never returned to the USSR - Tatarnikov, Ivankov-Nikolov, Eremenko and Solovyov - to death for treason. After appearing in anti-Soviet speeches inWashington, D.C., Ivankov-Nikolov lost his mind and was handed over to the Soviet Embassy, returning to the USSR in 1959;[36][35] he did not face judicial proceedings, since he was declared mentally ill and placed in a psychiatric hospital inKazan, where he spent over 20 years.[44][37]
Sailors L. F. Anfilov, Vladimir I. Benkovich, Pavel V. Gvozdik and N. V. Zibrov accepted an intelligence assignment to leave forBrazil with Polish passports by the end of 1957, then appeared at the SovietConsulate inUruguay and returned to the USSR next year.[80] However they were arrested after apress conference and sentenced to 15 years in prison for treason.[35] Later the sentences were reduced to 12 years, and further released with a pardon in 1963. They were rehabilitated in 1990.[44]
Sailors Valentin I. Kniga, Vsevolod V. Lopatyuk, Vladimir A. Sablin and Boris Pisanov, who withdrew the political asylum applications, were sentenced to 10 years in prison by the trial in absentia in a ROCcourt-martial as per the Martial Law system,[78] which mandated all the civilian cases tried by the military courts.[81] They spent seven years in prison before being placed under the guardedhouse arrest in various military quarters inHsinchu andTainan mountain areas till lastly to theYilan suburb under the custody ofTaiwan Garrison Command,[82] where aROC Foreign Ministry official spoke on condition of anonymity that they requested the political asylum in Taiwan and were being treated asrefugees without torture.[83][84] Following theSino-Soviet split, Soviet journalistVictor Louis visited theMinister of National Defense, Chiang Ching-kuo in Taipei in October 1968, and was allowed to bring the sailors some family letters which they had not received for thirteen years; then held several meetings with the Minister of ROCGovernment Information Office,James Wei inVienna after theConflict of Zhenbao Island in March 1969 to achieve a mutual agreement on releasing all the remaining crew in ROC military custody in 1970;[85] but this agreement was not honoured or realized, until aftermartial law was lifted, as the reporting of theIndependence Evening Post and the advocacy ofAmislegislatorTsai Chung-han for the detainees'human rights drawing public attention to the situation.[8][86][45]
With the newamnesty for allpolitical prisoners issued by the first local Taiwanese presidentLee Teng-hui after President Chiang Ching-kuo's death in 1988, they were finally released along with 5 Chinese detainees of thePraca andPrezydent Gottwald crews, and free to leave with the assistance of the Soviet Consul inSingapore, A. I. Tkachenko, to go home after 34 years in the militarycaptivity.[82][37] The last crew member, cook Vsevolod Lopatyuk accepted a teacher job offer with the ROC nationality,[84][38] but returned toUkraine in 1993 after three years of bedridden sickness and astroke.[87]
Sailor Zhorka M. Dimov suffered from the continual beating and bleeding without medical care and committed suicide in 1975; Mikhail M. Kalmazan died of sickness afterwards; Anatoly V. Kovalev died in a psychiatric facility. Theircorpses were not returned-family members were later shocked upon receiving postal-mailedashes.[82][44][35] Nevertheless, ROC military records claim the opposite, that they were well-treated and died of illnesses.[38]
Over 100 years after its establishment in 1911, theRepublic of China still does not have thelegislation of the Refugee Law to regulate thepolitical asylum process in accordance with international law,[88][89][90][91] and the government has never apologized or compensated the families or the states of the victims as per the international law.[37]
The communication barriers with theTuapse crew exposed the issue of lacking interpreters and translators in need, so Major-general Pu Dao-ming (卜道明少將), who was processing the case, gave the detainees aradio to listen to the news, and received special permission to found the first Russian language course in Taiwanese history at the Foreign Language School ofMND in 1957. The exceptional permission was extended later to the public institutes with scholarships offered for specified services, till the taboo finally disappeared with decades of accumulated outstanding practice merits, and the East European cultural and linguistic education are open to the civilian society and academies such as the academies ofNCCU,CCU,TKU andFHK today.[45] Pu died during a surgery before re-appealing to Chiang for the crew's release, on 24 May 1964.[82]
The story ofTuapse was depicted in the filmЧ. П. — Чрезвычайное происшествие (E.A. — Extraordinary Accident) in two parts in 1958, directed byViktor Ivchenko where two actors were from the original crew, then became the top film of 1959 in the USSR, with 47.5 million viewers.[92]
The ROC naval traffic blockade statusended on 12 September 1979;[93][5] while the penalties and measures against the vessels, crews and companies involving in the trade with PRC remained until 15 January 1992.[6][9]
In 1996, theRussian Government awarded a medal to each of the livingTuapse survivors.[31]
ROCSKuaiji (AOG-306) maintained the record as the largest vessel in the ROC Navy history with the 18,000 tons ofdisplacement until 23 January 2015, when the modern ROCSPan Shi (AOE-532) with the 20,630 tons of maximum flexible displacement launched in service.[94][95][96]
TheCentral Naval Museum inSaint Petersburg preserves amodel of the tankerTuapse.[31]
In 2005, a marble plaque in memory ofTuapse and her crew was erected in front of the passenger terminal building of the Odessa Port ofUkraine, where her final journey of no return began.[31][40]
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