Capsicum annuum is aflowering plant in the familySolanaceae (nightshades), native to the northern regions ofSouth America and to southwesternNorth America. The plant producesberries of many colors including red, green, and yellow, often withpungent taste. It is one of the oldestcultivated crops, with domestication dating back to around 6,000 years ago in regions of Mexico.[5] The genusCapsicum has over 30 species butCapsicum annuum is the primary species in its genus, as it has been widely cultivated for human consumption for a substantial amount of time and has spread across the world. This species has many uses in culinary, medicine, self-defense, and ornamental applications.[5]
The genus nameCapsicum derives from aGreek-based derivative of theLatin wordcapto, meaning 'to grasp, to seize', in reference to the heat or pungency of the species' fruit, although it has also been speculated to derive from the Latin wordcapsa, 'box', referring to the shape of the fruit in forms of the typical species.[6] Although the species nameannuum means 'annual' (from theLatinannus, 'year'), the plant is not anannual but is frost tender.[7] In the absence of winter frosts it can survive several seasons and grow into a large, shrubbyperennial herb.[8]
Common names including the wordpepper stem from a misconception on the part ofEuropeans taking part in theColumbian exchange. They mistakenly thought the spicy fruits were a variety of theblack pepper plant, which also has spicy fruit. However, these two plants are not closely related.[9] Commonly used names for the fruit ofCapsicum annuum in English vary by location andcultivar. The larger, sweeter cultivars are called "capsicum" in Australia and New Zealand.[10] In Great Britain and Ireland, cultivars of the plant are typically discussed in groups of either "sweet" or "hot/chilli" peppers, only rarely providing the specific cultivar.[11] In Canada and the United States it is commonplace to provide the cultivar in most instances, for example "bell", "jalapeño", "cayenne", or "bird's eye" peppers, to convey differences in taste including sweetness or pungency.[12]
Capsicum annuum cultivars look like small shrubs with many branches and thin stems, with a tendency to climb. Some varieties can grow up to two meters tall (6.56 feet) using others to climb on.[13] The shrub has oval glossy leaves sometimes growing to 7.5 cm (3 inches) in length, while generallygreen, depending on the cultivar the leaves can turn darkpurple orblack as the plant ages.[9]Capsicum annuum are annual or biennial herbaceous plants that have a life cycle consisting of four stages (seedling, vegetation, flowering, and fruiting.)[14] Being a flowering plant with variations there are different shapes offlowers andfruits produced on individuals typically having star or bell shaped flowers coming in a range of colors including purple,white, and green. Just as the flowers, the fruits of this species comes in various shapes (berry shape to bell pepper shape), and colors includingred,yellow, green, and black.[9]
Variants of this species also have the ability to produce and retaincapsaicinoid compounds giving their fruits a powerful (spicy) taste which can vary in strengths. One semi-domesticated variation ofCapsicum annuum is a variety namedCapsicum annuum L. var.glabriusculum (Chiltepin peppers). It grows white flowers and producesberry fruits that are red when mature.[13] Similar to other variants the Chiltepin pepper produces and containscapsaicin which is responsible for its intense heat ranging from 100,000 to 200,000Scoville heat units making it one of the hottest fruits grown in Mexico.[13]
Another variant ofCapsicum annuum, thebell pepper, is quite different from Chiltepin peppers, being described as "sweet", as it does not contain high concentrations of capsaicin and is rated a 0 on the Scoville heat scale.[14] Bell peppers grow on shrub body plants, and the fruits are large, quadrangular, and fleshy. They can also grow to a weight of 500 grams and come in many colors, including yellow, orange, red, and green.[15] Although this variant lacks in capsaicinoids, it is still packed with various bioactive compounds,carotinoids, andvitamins making them a valuable crop.[15]
Capsicum annuum today have many variations of fruits, the beginning to this is estimated to be from natives ofMesoamerica around 6,000 years ago using selective breeding to domesticate wild forms of the peppers. Through research scientists have found remnants of wild peppers ancestral to modernCapsicum annuum varieties in various locations and caves in places such as theOaxaca Valley in Mexico. The discovery of this has led researchers to believe that wild chili peppers were consumed before their domestication dating back to more than 8,000 years ago.[5]
Domestication of crops using conscious and unconscious selective methods usually leads to a decrease in the plants natural defensive traits. However forCapsicum annuum this is not always true, some variants have been created to increase the defensive compoundcapsaicin otherwise making the fruit more powerful.[16]Capsicum annuum have also experienced "domestication syndrome" leading to several morphological andphytochemical changes leading to increased fruit and/or seed size, changes in reproductive cycles, and changes in plant structure. However, as a consequence of the cultivation of the wild species, some variants have experienced decreased fitness, leaving them vulnerable (and unlikely to survive) when not being cultivated.[17]
Flowers ofCapsicum annuum generally consist of 6–7petals andsepals, have 7stamens, and contain anovary that is superior to a singlestyle consisting of 2–3carpels and a single stamen. Members are self pollinators, butcross pollination often occurs when plants are grown in large quantities, viabees,wasps, andants.[5] In commercial production ofCapsicum annuum, human pollination is often used to producehybrid seeds that can grow into new variants of the pepper, which is a form of selective breeding that demonstrates how the pepper was domesticated.[18]
Within the flowers there are several reproductive structures that are used inpollination andfertilization, the two relative include theanthers and the ovary. Anthers are the male organ producing the microgametes (pollen) that will disperse to fertilize the megagamete that is located in the ovary of the female reproductive organ, leading to the development of thepropagule (fruit).[19]
After fertilization the fruit of the plant begins to develop which is determined by the specific variety that is being grown. The fruit grows to maturity, then is ready fordispersal of its seeds.[5]
The seeds of some varieties ofCapsicum annuum are coated in the compound capsaicin. This was a defensive mechanism of wild chilis before their domestication roughly 6,000 years ago. Capsaicin is a compound that can be extremely powerful depending on theconcentration, and this was used to protect the seeds frompredation, and increase their chance of survival. However, birds are not affected by the presence of capsaicin and are able to eat the fruits and seeds. The seeds are then passed through the birds' digestive system and dispersed to new environments viadefecation.[16]
Bird dispersal for seeds has proven to be beneficial for the peppers as they have the ability to spread large distances. One example of this is the wild chiltepin, which has a massive range of habitat from NorthernPeru toSouthwestern United States.[13]
Capsicum annuum has been widely cultivated and modified through breeding for certaintraits, which allows them to be used in multiple applications. These include in food,traditional medicine,cosmetics, and even self defense (pepper spray).[5]
There are multiple ways this species can be used in food, this includes fresh,dried,pickled, andpowdered. It is widely used in traditional Mexican cuisine to create dishes such as Oaxacan blackmole.[5] It is added to many dishes worldwide for spice and flavor; it is used as acolorant for aesthetics.[citation needed] According to a study looking atCapsicum annuum as a contender for alleviatingmicronutrient deficiencies, along with their flavor and coloring properties, they are also very rich in micronutrients, including vitamins:A,B,B3, andC.[20]
The species is a source of popular sweet peppers and hot chilis, with numerous varieties cultivated all around the world, and is the source of popular spices such ascayenne,chili,pimentón andpaprika powders, as well aspimiento (pimento).
Capsinoid chemicals provide the distinctive tastes inC. annuum variants. In particular,capsaicin creates a burning sensation ("hotness"), which in extreme cases can last for several hours after ingestion. A measurement called theScoville scale has been created to describe the hotness of peppers and other foods.
In old civilizations such as theMayan andAztec, capsicum species includingC. annuum were used to treat many illnesses includingasthma,toothaches, coughs, and sores. Today these practices still exist in developing countries, using them for theirantioxidant,antimicrobial,antifungal, andantiviral properties.[5] There have also been studies linking the consumption of capsaicinoids and a decreased risk ofcardiovascular disease andcancer.[13]
Even with its defensive strategies,Capsicum annuum can still fall victim to several pests andviruses.[22] Some can harbor viruses deadly to the species, these includewhiteflies andaphids. Another pest which is quite vicious is aweevil (Anthonomus eugenii Cano) which thelarva of this pest affects the plants during the flowering and fruiting stages of its life, and can reduce its production rate by up to 90%.[5] Other pests that can cause damage to the plants are thetobacco budworms andthrips.[22] Diseases include phytophthora blight,anthracnose,phytophthora root and basal rot.[23]
^Aguilar-Meléndez, A., Azurdia, C., Cerén-López, J., Menjívar, J. & Contreras, A. 2020. Capsicum annuum (amended version of 2019 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T100895534A172969027.https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T100895534A172969027.en. Downloaded on 11 October 2021.
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