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Christmas in Italy (Italian:Natale,pronounced[naˈtaːle]) begins on 8 December, with theFeast of the Immaculate Conception,[2] the day on which traditionally theChristmas tree is mounted and ends on 6 January, of the following year with theEpiphany (Italian:Epifania[epifaˈniːa]),[3] and in some areas female puppets are burned on a pyre (calledfalò), to symbolize, along with the end of the Christmas period, the death of the old year and the beginning of a new one. 26 December (Saint Stephen's Day, in ItalianGiorno di Santo Stefano), is also apublic holiday in Italy. The Italian termNatale derives from theLatinnatalis, which literally means 'birth',[4] and the greetings in Italian arebuon Natale (Merry Christmas) andfelice Natale (lit. 'happy Christmas').[5]
The tradition of thenativity scene comes from Italy. One of the earliest representation in art of the nativity was found in theearly ChristianRoman catacomb ofSaint Valentine.[6] The first seasonal nativity scene, which seems to have been a dramatic rather than sculptural rendition, is attributed toSaint Francis of Assisi (died 1226). Francis' 1223 nativity scene inGreccio is commemorated on the calendars of the Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican liturgical calendars,[7][8][9][10] and its creation[7] is described bySaint Bonaventure in hisLife of Saint Francis of Assisic. 1260.[11] Nativity scenes were popularised by Saint Francis of Assisi from 1223, quickly spreading across Europe.[12] It seems that the firstChristmas tree in Italy was erected at theQuirinal Palace at the behest ofQueen Margherita, towards the end of the 19th century.[3]Mount Ingino Christmas Tree inGubbio is the tallest Christmas tree in the world.[1] In Italy, the oldestChristmas market is considered to be that ofBologna, held for the first time in the 18th century and linked to the feast ofSaint Lucy.[13] Typical bearers of gifts from the Christmas period in Italy are Saint Lucy (December 13),Christ Child,Babbo Natale (the name given toSanta Claus), and, on Epiphany, theBefana.[14]
According to tradition, the Christmas Eve dinner must not contain meat. A popular Christmas Day dish inNaples and insouthern Italy is eel or capitone, which is a female eel. A traditional Christmas Day dish fromnorthern Italy iscapon (gelded chicken).Abbacchio is more common incentral Italy.[15] The Christmas Day dinner traditionally consists by typical Italian Christmas dishes, such asagnolini,cappelletti,agnolotti pavesi,panettone,pandoro,torrone,panforte,struffoli,mustacciuoli,bisciola,cavallucci,veneziana,pizzelle,zelten, or others, depending on the regional cuisine.[16] Christmas on 25 December is celebrated with a family lunch, also consisting of different types of pasta and meat dishes, cheese and local sweets.
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Christianity spread to Italy early, and by the 4th century, Christmas was first celebrated as the birth of Jesus Christ. TheCatholic Church established December 25th as the official date for Christmas, aligning it with the Roman festival ofSol Invictus (the birthday of the "Unconquered Sun"), which was celebrated around the same time. This helped to ease the conversion of pagan customs into Christian celebrations.
Sol Invictus, "Invincible Sun" or "Unconquered Sun", was the officialsun god of the lateRoman Empire and a later version of the godSol. The emperorAurelian revived his cult in 274 AD and promoted Sol Invictus as the chief god of the empire.[17][18] From Aurelian onward, Sol Invictus often appeared on imperial coinage, usually shown wearing asun crown and driving a horse-drawn chariot through the sky. His prominence lasted until the emperorConstantine I legalized Christianity and restricted paganism.[a] The last known inscription referring to Sol Invictus dates to AD 387,[20] although there were enough devotees in the 5th century that the Christian theologianAugustine found it necessary to preach against them.[21]
In recent years, the scholarly community has become divided on Sol between traditionalists and a growing group of revisionists.[22] In the traditional view,Sol Invictus was the second of two different sun gods in Rome. The first of these,Sol Indiges, orSol, was believed to be an early Roman god of minor importance whose cult had petered out by the 1st century AD.Sol Invictus, on the other hand, was believed to be a Syrian sun god whose cult was first promoted in Rome underElagabalus, without success. Some fifty years later, in 274 AD, Aurelian established the cult ofSol Invictus as an official religion.[23] There has never been consensus onwhich Syrian sun god he might have been: some scholars opted for the sky god of Emesa,Elagabal,[19] while others preferredMalakbel ofPalmyra.[24][25] In the revisionist view, there was only one cult of Sol in Rome, continuous from themonarchy to theend of antiquity. There were at least three temples of Sol in Rome, all active during the Empire and all dating from the earlier Republic.[26][27][28][29]
Before theunification of Italy, a large part of the Italian peninsula was part of thePapal States. After the unification in 1860, due to French aid, the Pope maintained control overRome andLazio. This ended on 20 September 1870, shortly after the defeat ofNapoleon III. The Kingdom of Italy moved its capital to Rome and the Catholic Church lost any remaining temporal power.
The defeat of the Pope by the Kingdom of Italy gave rise to a long period of antagonism between ecclesiastical and Italian powers. This resulted in the Catholic Church suggesting its believers not to take part in the affairs of the country and the consequent secularisation of Italian politics. The Kingdom of Italy and the Catholic Church managed to reapproach underFascist Italy with the stipulation of theLateran Treaty. Among other things, the treaty allowed for the foundation of theVatican City, a microstate over which theHoly See has full jurisdiction. The Lateran Treaty survived the fall of Fascism and the establishment of the Republic and was significantly amended in 1984.
One of Italy's most iconic Christmas traditions is thepresepe ornativity scene. The custom is attributed toSt. Francis of Assisi, who, in 1223, created the first living nativity scene inGreccio to help bring the Christmas story to life for the people. Over time, thepresepe became a beloved tradition, with families and towns creating intricate displays of the nativity.Naples is particularly famous for its elaborate presepi (plural of presepe), which often include a wide array of figures and even scenes of daily life from 18th-century Naples.
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The Feast of the Immaculate Conception (Italian:Festa dell'Immacolata Concezione) on 8 December is anational holiday in Italy. Christmas decorations, including thepresepe (nativity scene),[30] as well as the Christmas tree, are usually put up on this day. 26 December (Saint Stephen's Day, in ItalianGiorno di Santo Stefano), is also a public holiday in Italy. Festivities extend to the end of the year and then to the Epiphany on 6 January.
In Italy,Saint Stephen's Day became a public holiday in 1947, where previously it was a normal working day; the Catholic Church also celebrates it as a religious holiday, even if not as aprecept, as it is in Germany and other German-speaking countries. The reason for the public holiday in Italy, not required by the Catholic Church despite the fame of the saint, is to be found in the intention of prolonging the Christmas holiday, creating two consecutive public holidays, which also happens in the case ofEaster Monday, a non-religious holiday.[31] Before 1947, the two days were working days, with banks and offices open.
Traditions regarding the exchanging of gifts vary from region to region, as this may take place either onChristmas Eve or on Christmas Day. Presents for children are left underneath the Christmas tree either by Santa Claus (calledBabbo Natale) or, according to older traditions, by Baby Jesus himself.[32] In some regions children receive gifts earlier (at St. Lucy's Day) or later (on Epiphany). On 6 January (Epiphany, in ItalianEpifania) decorations are usually taken down, and in some areas female puppets are burned on a pyre (calledfalò), to symbolize, along with the end of the Christmas period, the death of the old year and the beginning of a new one.[33]
Christmas is celebrated in Italy[34] in a similar fashion to other Western European countries, with a strong emphasis given to the Christian meaning of the holiday and its celebration by theCatholic Church, also reinforced by the still widespread tradition of setting up thepresepe, a tradition initiated bySaint Francis of Assisi. It is quite common to attendMidnight Mass on Christmas Eve and practice the old custom of abstinence from meat on the day (but not fasting, which is observed by theEastern Orthodox Church).
The Christmas Day dinner traditionally consists of typical Italian Christmas dishes, such asagnolini,cappelletti,agnolotti pavesi,capon, lamb,eel,panettone,pandoro,torrone,panforte,struffoli,mustacciuoli,bisciola,cavallucci,veneziana,pizzelle,zelten, or others, depending on the regional cuisine.[16] Christmas on 25 December is celebrated with a family lunch, also consisting of different types of pasta and meat dishes, cheese and local sweets.
Starting from 16 December and untilChristmas Eve, the Christmasnovena is recited in theCatholic Church.[35]
On 24 December, Christmas Eve, the Christmas night mass, also calledMidnight Mass, is celebrated. On the night of 31 December,New Year's Eve, in the evening mass of the Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God, theTe Deum is typically sung as a sign of gratification for the past year.
In Italy,Saint Stephen's Day became a public holiday in 1947, where previously it was a normal working day; the Catholic Church also celebrates it as a religious holiday, even if not as aprecept, as it is in Germany and other German-speaking countries. The reason for the public holiday in Italy, not required by the Catholic Church despite the fame of the saint, is to be found in the intention of prolonging the Christmas holiday, creating two consecutive public holidays, which also happens in the case ofEaster Monday, a non-religious holiday, but which only wants to lengthen Easter.[36] Before 1947 the two days were working days, with banks and offices open.
The tradition of thenativity scene (presepe) comes from Italy. One of the earliest representation in art of the nativity was found in theearly ChristianRoman catacomb ofSaint Valentine.[6] It dates to about AD 380.[37] Another, of similar date, is beneath the pulpit inSant'Ambrogio, Milan.
The first seasonal nativity scene, which seems to have been a dramatic rather than sculptural rendition, is attributed toSaint Francis of Assisi. Francis' 1223 nativity scene inGreccio is commemorated on the calendars of the Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican liturgical calendars,[7][8][9][10] and its creation[7] is described bySaint Bonaventure in hisLife of Saint Francis of Assisi c. 1260.[11] Nativity scenes were popularised by Saint Francis of Assisi from 1223, quickly spreading across Europe.[12] In Italy, regional crib traditions then spread, such as that of theBolognese crib, theGenoese crib and theNeapolitan crib.
In southern Italy,living nativity scenes (presepe vivente) are extremely popular. They may be elaborate affairs, featuring not only the classic nativity scene but also a mock rural 19th-century village, complete with artisans in traditional costumes working at their trades. These attract many visitors and have been televised onRAI, the nationalpublic broadcasting company of Italy. In 2010, the old city ofMatera, Basilicata, hosted the world's largest living nativity scene of the time, which was performed in the historic center,Sassi.[38]
The tradition of theYule log, once widespread, has been attested in Italy since the 11th century. A detailed description of this tradition is given in a book printed inMilan in the 14th century.[40] The Yule log appears with different names depending on the region: inTuscany it is known asciocco,[41] while inLombardy it is known aszocco.[42] InValdichiana, Tuscany, it was customary for children, blindfolded, to hit the block with pincers, while the rest of the family sang a particular song, called "Ave Maria del Ceppo".[39] That tradition was once deeply rooted in Italy is demonstrated by the fact that Christmas in Tuscany was called the "feast of the log".[41]
The tradition of theChristmas tree, ofGermanic origin, was also widely adopted in Italy during the 20th century. It seems that the first Christmas tree in Italy was erected at theQuirinal Palace at the behest ofQueen Margherita, towards the end of the 19th century.[3]
During Fascism this custom was frowned upon and opposed (being considered an imitation of a foreign tradition), preferring the typically Italian nativity scene. In 1991, theGubbio Christmas Tree, 650 meters high and decorated with over 700 lights, entered theGuinness Book of Records as the tallest Christmas tree in the world.[1]
In Italy, the oldestChristmas market is considered to be that ofBologna, held for the first time in the 18th century and linked to the feast ofSaint Lucy.[13] The tradition of the markets has however spread in Italy predominantly especially since the 1990s of the 20th century, with the birth of the first modern markets: among these, the first ever was that ofBolzano, born in 1991, which was followed by others in the area ofAlto Adige,[43] in particular inMerano,Bressanone,Vipiteno andBrunico.[44] TheTrento Christmas market, established in 1993, is renowned inTrentino.[45] InNaples, where the tradition of theNeapolitan nativity scene has been famous for centuries, the exhibition of the nativity scenes made in the city's artisan shops is held every year in via San Gregorio Armeno.[46] Noteworthy are the Christmas markets atPiazza Navona inRome,[47] inVerona, inGubbio, inAlberobello, inAosta, inTurin, inAsti, inArezzo, inFlorence, inTrieste, inLivigno, inSanta Maria Maggiore,Arco and inCison di Valmarino.[48][49][50]
Typically Italian tradition is instead that of thezampognari (sg.:zampognaro), or men dressed as shepherds and equipped withzampogna, a double chanteredbagpipes, who come down from the mountains, playingChristmas music.[51] This tradition, dating back to the 19th century, is particularly widespread in thesouth of the country.[52]
A description of theAbruzzesezampognari is provided byHéctor Berlioz in 1832.[39]
Typical bearers of gifts from the Christmas period in Italy areSaint Lucy (13 December),Christ Child,Babbo Natale (the name given toSanta Claus), and, on Epiphany, theBefana.[14]
Traditional bearer of gifts in some areas ofnorthern Italy, such asVerona,Lodi,Cremona,Pavia,Brescia,Bergamo andPiacenza isSaint Lucy on the night between 12 and 13 December.[53]
InSyracuse, Sicily, the local celebration of the same name lasts from 13 to 20 December. According to the Italian tradition, Saint Lucy shows up on her donkey and the children must leave a cup of tea for the saint and a plate of flour for the animal.[54]
TheChrist Child (Italian:Bambino Gesù,Gesù Bambino orSanto Bambino), also known as Divine Infant, Baby Jesus, Infant Jesus, the Divine Child, Child Jesus and the Holy Child , refers toJesus Christ from hisnativity until age 12. The fourcanonical gospels, accepted by most Christians today, lack any narration of the years between Jesus' infancy and theFinding in the Temple when he was 12.
In Italy, until the 20th century, before the tradition of letters addressed toSanta Claus spread throughout the country, it was customary in many families to have children write letters addressed to Christ Child, compositions expressing good intentions for the new year and requests for welcome gifts for Christmas Day.[55]
Several historically significant images of the Christ Child have beencrowned by the pope, namely theBambino Gesù di Arenzano and theSanto Bambino of Aracoeli (both in Italy), theInfant Jesus of Prague (Czech Republic), and theSanto Niño de Cebú (Philippines). In the 17th century, French Carmelites promoted veneration of the "Little King of Beaune".[56] In the late 19th century, a devotion to the "Holy Child of Remedy" developed inMadrid,Spain.[57]
A typical figure of Italian Christmasfolklore is theBefana, depicted as an old witch on a broom, who appears as a bearer of gifts on 6 January, the day of theEpiphany. According to tradition, this figure brings gifts (usually sweets inside of a sock) to good children and coal to bad children.[58]
The Befana, whose name is an altered form of the wordEpifania, is a figure that can be connected to others that are also found in other cultures, such as the GermanFrau Berchta and the Russian Babuška.[58]
A famous nursery rhyme is dedicated to the figure of the Befana:
—La Befana vien di Notte
In 1938, underfascism, the so-called "Fascist Befana" was introduced during theChristmas holidays, a demonstration for charitable purposes.[59]
Strenna orStrenna di Natale is a gift that is usual to make or receive in Italy at Christmas time. This custom comes from the tradition ofancient Rome which involved the exchange of gifts of good wishes during theSaturnalia, a series of festivities that took place each year between 17 and 23 December, in honor of the godSaturn and preceding the day of theNatalis Solis Invicti. The term derives from theLatinStrena, word probably ofSabine origin, with the meaning 'gift of good luck'.
According toVarro, the use was adopted as early as the first foundation of the city, set up byTitus Tatius who first caught, as good augur for the new year, the twig of a plant (arbor felix) located in the woods sacred to the goddessStrenia; from this derived the termstrenae for the gifts of various types, including coins, to be exchanged in the feast of Saturnalia.
In the publishing field, in the 19th century,strenna was also a collection of poems in prose and poetry that was placed for sale in the New Year. This use nowadays has diminished, but not ceased. From this custom come the definitionsstrenne editoriali orlibro strenna. for publications placed on the market during the first week of December, having as main purpose to serve as a traditional gift for the Christmas festivities.
Oh bej! Oh bej! (pronounced[uˈbɛjuˈbɛj]or[ɔˈbɛjɔˈbɛj]; inMilanese: 'oh so nice! oh so nice!')[60] is the most important and traditionalChristmasfair inMilan. It is held from 7 December (day of thepatron saint ofMilan,Ambrose) until the following Sunday. The fair is also informally known as theFiera di Sant'Ambrogio ('Saint Ambrose Fair').
The Oh bej! Oh bej! fair has been held in different areas of Milan; until 1886, it was located inPiazza Mercanti (in the surroundings of theDuomo); from 1886 to 2006, it was held by theBasilica di Sant'Ambrogio; in 2006, it was relocated again, to the area of theSforza Castle.
The most typical goods that are sold at Oh bej! Oh bej! are sweets and Christmas or winter delicacies, handcrafts such as Christmas decorations, toys, antiques, souvenirs, bric-a-brac, and more.[61] The fair is usually very crowded; this is partly because, as Saint Ambrose Day is immediately followed by theImmaculate Conception Day (an Italian national holiday), and potentially be followed by a weekend, Milanese usually have several free days in the fair's days.
While celebrations devoted to Ambrose, in Milan, date back to the late 13th century, the actual Oh bej! Oh bej! fair is said to have been established in 1510, on the occasion of Giannetto Castiglione, delegate ofPope Pius IV, visiting Milan on 7 December.[62]
TheConfeugo is an ancient cultural event[63] inLiguria, traditionally celebrated onChristmas Eve or a couple of days beforeChristmas.[64] It is a historical event linked to theRepublic of Genoa and is still commemorated today mainly inGenoa andSavona, but also in other Ligurian Municipalities that were once the seat of podesterie and capitaneati.[65]
As some historical sources testify, this tradition was born in Genoa in the early years of the 14th century, although most probably this historical event dates back to older times.[66]
Ndocciata is an ancientChristmas festival celebrated inMolise, southern Italy, specifically in thecomune (municipality) ofAgnone. On the evening of 24 December the "Ndocciata" of Agnone is a parade of a great number of "'ndocce" (torches), structures with a typical fanwise shape, made of silver fir pinewood pallets.[67] They may be only one torch or, more often, with multiple torches up to 20 fires. Four metres high, torches are transported by different carriers dressed in traditional costumes. The big bell of St. Anthony's Church is rung, and groups from the cities' districts (Capammonde and Capabballe, Colle Sente, Guastra, Onofrio, San Quirico) consisting of hundreds of carriers of all ages, light their torches to set off along the main streets which thus becomes what locals call a "river of fire". There is a choral participation and bagpipers along the roads of the village, and groups compete in order to have the biggest and the most beautiful torch. The procession ends with a bonfire called "Bonfire of Brotherhood" at Plebiscite Square where anativity scene is displayed.[68]
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TheBadalisc (also Badalisk) is amythical creature of theVal Camonica,Italy, in thesouthern central Alps.[69] The Badalisc is represented today as a creature with a big head covered with agoat skin, two small horns, a huge mouth and glowing eyes. According to legend the Badalisc lives in the woods around the village ofAndrista (commune ofCevo) and is supposed to annoy the community. Each year it is captured during the period ofEpiphany (5 and 6 January) and led on a rope into the village by musicians and masked characters, includingil giovane ('the young man'),il vecchio ('the old man'),la vecchia ('the old woman') andla signorina ('the young woman'), who is "bait" for the animal's lust. There are also some oldwitches, who beat drums, and bearded shepherds, and ahunchback (un torvo gobetto) who has a "rustic duel" with the animal. Traditionally only men take part, although some aredressed as women. In medieval times women were prohibited from participating in the exhibition, or even to see or hear the Badalisc's Speech; if they did so they would be deniedHoly Communion the following day.
In the village square (formerly in a stable) theBadalisc's speech (la 'ntifunada) is read, in which the mythological animalgossips about the community. The Badalisc itself is a dumb creature, so the speech, nowadays written in rhyme, is read by an "interpreter". Once improvised, now written in advance, the speech reveals all the supposed sins and scheming of the community. During the speech the hunchback bangs his stick rhythmically at intervals. The speech is followed by singing, dancing and feasting. In the evening the community eats the "Badaliscpolenta" (a commercial version of this traditional food was launched in 2010).[70] Until recently, village children would beg from house to house during the Badalisc celebrations for cornmeal to make the polenta; a Badaliscsalami was also specially made for them. The badalisc has aplace of honour at the feasts.[71]
The peaks of tourist flows in Italy are recorded in winter, due to theChristmas andNew Year's Day holidays,[72] in spring, due to theEaster holidays,[73] and in summer, due to the favourable climate.[74]
Italy is among the countries most visited in the world by tourists during theChristmas holidays.[75] The attraction factors are the not too harsh climate, the cultural offer of the cities including museums, exhibitions and party initiatives, the rich gastronomy as well as the more affordable prices compared to other countries.[75]
Italy is the second European country most visited by European tourists during the Christmas holidays behindSpain and ahead ofPortugal,France and theUnited Kingdom.[75] The Italian cities most visited by international tourists during the Christmas holidays are, in order,Milan,Rome,Naples,Catania,Palermo andCagliari.[75] Milan, in particular, is the favourite destination by European tourists forGermans,British andPortuguese tourists and the second forFrench,Spaniards andDutch tourists.[75]
Tortellini is a type ofstuffed pasta typical of the Italian cities ofBologna andModena, in the Emilia-Romagna region. Traditionally it is stuffed with a mix of meat (pork loin,prosciutto,mortadella), Parmesan cheese, egg, and nutmeg and served incapon broth (in brodo di cappone).[76] The etymology oftortellini is the diminutive form oftortello, itself a diminutive oftorta (lit. 'cake' or'pie').[77]
The recipe for a dish calledtortelletti appears in 1570 fromBartolomeo Scappi.Vincenzo Tanara's writings in the mid-17th century may be responsible for the pasta's renaming to tortellini. In the 1800s, legends sprang up to explain the recipe's origins, offering a compromise.Castelfranco Emilia, located between Bologna and Modena,[78] is featured in one legend, in which Venus stays at an inn. Overcome by her beauty, the innkeeper spies on her through a keyhole, through which he can only see her navel. He is inspired to create a pasta in this shape. This legend would be at the origin of the termombelico di Venere (lit. 'Venus' navel'), occasionally used to describe tortellini.[79]
Tortellini are especially associated with Christmas and other winter holidays, traditionally served as a festive first course during family celebrations.
Agnolini is a type of egg-basedstuffed pasta originating from theprovince of Mantua (in the Mantuan dialect it is commonly called "agnulìn" or "agnulì"), oftentimes eaten in soup or broth. Agnolini's recipe was first published inL'arte di ben cucinare [it] (1662) byBartolomeo Stefani [it], a cook at the court of theGonzaga family.[80]
Agnolini is the main ingredient of soups of the Mantuan cuisine, usually consumed during holidays and important occasions. According to Mantuan tradition, duringChristmas Eve chicken broth with the agnolini alongside other traditional Mantuan dishes such as the agnolini's soupsorbir d'agnoli, with abundant addition ofParmesan cheese are consumed. Sorbir, to which red wine is added, generallyLambrusco, represents the opening to the Christmas lunch.[81]
Cappelletti (Italian:[kappelˈletti]) are ring-shapedItalianstuffed pasta so called for the characteristic shape that resembles a hat (cappello in Italian). Compared totortellini, they have a different shape, larger size, thicker dough and different filling. The origins of the recipe, very widespread on a territorial basis, are ancient, traditionally and historically linked toEmilia-Romagna[82] andMarche.[83] From these areas it then spread over the centuries, becoming a typical dish in various cities. Some recent sources specifically indicate the area in the Cesena-Ferrara-Reggio Emilia triangle as the place of origin;[82][84] others report the Marche as a land where cappelletti are of ancient tradition.[83]
Cappelletti are also traditional in Reggio Emilia and Parma, especially during the Christmas holidays. The Reggiano type is shaped like a small hat or similar to a ring (different from theanolini or cappelletti fromParma, with a similar filling).[85]Pellegrino Artusi, a native ofForlimpopoli, in hisScience in the kitchen and the art of eating well, reports recipe no. 7: Romagna-style cappelletti, with ricotta-based filling (or ricotta andraviggiolo), capon breast or pork loin, to be cooked in capon broth.[86] In Umbria, cappelletti in capon broth[87] are also considered the typical dish on New Year's Day. Unlike Romagna, where the filling is made with cheeses, the Umbrian recipe also includes mixed meat such as veal, turkey or chicken and pork loin.
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Agnolotti pavesi is a type of egg-basedstuffed pasta of theLombard cuisine served hot or warm, typical of theOltrepò Pavese, an area of theprovince of Pavia, in the Italian region of Lombardy.[88] Agnolotti pavesi can be served dry, with a sauce based on Pavese stew,[89] or in goose broth.[90][91]
The filling of the agnolotti pavesi is based on Pavese stew.[88] The recipe for this stuffed egg-based pasta is characterized by influences fromPiedmontese andPiacentino cuisine, characteristics of areas that border the Oltrepò Pavese.[92] The shape of the pasta was based on the Piedmonteseagnolotti, and the filling of Pavese stew is based on stracotto alla piacentina, which is the filling for Piacentinoanolini [it].[93] Piedmontese agnolotti, in particular, differ from the agnolotti pavesi due to the filling, which is instead based on roast meat.[94] Agnolotti pavesi is a typical dish of theChristmas tradition,[95] and are consumed during celebrations and important occasions.[96]
Innorthern Italy,capon is eaten as a meat dish served onChristmas Day. This tradition dates back to the Middle Ages, when capon broth was consumed during the Christmas holidays, which were also linked to the celebrations of thewinter solstice.[15] In particular, in Milan, around Christmas, four capons were raised, a deep-rooted tradition also reported inAlessandro Manzoni'sThe Betrothed,[15] generally ranked among the masterpieces ofworld literature.[97] The four capons for the Christmas holidays in Milan were eaten, respectively, on the feast ofSt. Ambrose (patron saint of Milan), on Christmas, on New Year's Eve and on the Epiphany.[15]
The typical Christmas recipe for this dish is stuffed capon.[15] For the filling, minced veal or sausage, stale bread and milk are used, all flavored with pepper, nutmeg, rosemary, garlic, sage and parsley.[15] Traditionally, capon is then served at the table garnished with pomegranate seeds, which is one of the oldest symbols linked to fertility and well-being.[15]
Abbacchio is anItalian preparation oflamb typical of theRoman cuisine.[98][99] Incentral Italy, the consumption ofabbacchio is common as a Christmas dish, particularly in Rome. In Rome abbacchio is also anEaster food.[15]
InRomanesco dialect, the offspring of the sheep who is still suckling or recently weaned is called "abbacchio", while the offspring of the sheep almost a year old who has already been shorn twice is called "agnello" (lit. 'lamb').[100] This distinction exists only in the Romanesco dialect.[100] Abbacchio is a product protected by theEuropean Union with thePGI mark.[101]
The classic Christmas recipe for this dish involves cooking the lamb in a pan, adding chopped sage and garlic and then wine mixed with vinegar.[15] Other recipes include lamb cooked in the oven, fried or grilled.[15]
Insouthern Italy, especially in Naples, atChristmas Eve dinner, the femaleeel, which is called "capitone" (from theLatincaput, meaning 'head') is eaten. The female eel is characterized by its head size, which is larger than that of the male eel. It can be found in both freshwater and saltwater, since the eel usually travels up rivers from the sea. The tradition of eating female eel during the Christmas holiday season dates back to ancient times.[15]
In fact, due to its shape, the eel recalls a serpent, a biblical symbol ofEvil, and consuming it in a religious festival corresponds to a symbolic act of good omen, which links the birth of Christ with the elimination of Evil. According to tradition, the eel to be consumed on Christmas Eve must be purchased alive the previous day, a period in which fishmongers put live female eels in large tanks. In this way, the eel maintains its freshness.[15] After the eel is killed, it is cut into pieces, rubbed with lemon juice and salt, and left to sit for a few hours. It is now ready to cook. Here, the most common preparation is frying, although some families cook the eel slowly in a tomato sauce, often flavoured with garlic and oregano.[102]
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Panettone is an Italian type ofsweet bread andfruitcake, originally fromMilan, usually prepared and enjoyed forChristmas andNew Year inWestern,Southern, andSoutheastern Europe, as well as inSouth America,Eritrea,[103]Australia, theUnited States andCanada.[104] The oldest and most certain attestation of the panettone is found in a register of expenses of theBorromeo college ofPavia in 1599.[105]
The origins of this dessert probably date back to the 12th century.[106] The namepanettone perhaps derives frompan del Ton, referring to one of the legends about the origins of this dessert, which was allegedly created by ascullery boy named Toni in the service of Duke Ludovico.[107] This Christmas cake was particularly appreciated by the writerAlessandro Manzoni and by the composerGiuseppe Verdi.[108][109]
Efforts are underway to obtainprotected designation of origin anddenominazione di origine controllata status for this product, but these have not yet been successful.[110] Former Italian Agriculture MinisterPaolo De Castro was known to be looking at ways to protect genuine Italian cakes from growing competition in South America, and exploring whether action could be taken at theWorld Trade Organization.
Another typical Italian Christmas cake spread throughout the territory ispandoro, a sweet originally fromVerona, created in 1884 byDomenico Melegatti [it].[106] The name of this cake derives frompan de oro, in memory of a conical-shaped cake, which at the time of theRepublic of Venice was covered with pure gold leaves.[111] Pandoro is today the most consumed Italian Christmas dessert together withpanettone.[112]
His recipe was the result of a reworking of thelevà, a dessert with granulated sugar and almonds originally from Verona, to which Domenico Melegatti removed the covering and added butter and eggs to the dough.[112] The dessert was so successful that several local imitators attempted to recreate it; the Veronese entrepreneur put a thousand lire up for grabs (which at the time corresponded to a small fortune) to anyone who managed to match his recipe. Despite this, no one managed to obtain the prize.[112] The first citation of a dessert clearly identified as pandoro dates to the 18th century.
Originally fromnorthern Italy, but widespread throughout the country, istorrone. According to tradition, the nougat originated from a dessert served inCremona, Lombardy, on 25 October 1441 on the occasion of the wedding betweenFrancesco Sforza andBianca Maria Visconti.[113] Traditional versions from Cremona range widely in texture (morbido, soft and chewy, toduro, hard and brittle) and in flavor (with various citrus flavorings,vanilla, etc., added to the nougat) and may contain whole hazelnuts, almonds and pistachios or only have nut meal added to the nougat. Some commercial versions are dipped in chocolate. The popular recipes have varied with time and differ from one region to the next. Torrone di Benevento fromBenevento,Campania, sometimes goes by the historic nameCupedia, which signifies the crumbly version made with hazelnuts. The softer version is made with almonds. Torrone di Benevento is considered to be the oldest of its type since it predates Roman times and was widely known in the territories of Samnium.[114][115] Although originally resembling sticky paste, it now differs only marginally from the varieties of torrone di Cremona.[116][117]Abruzzo,Sicily andSardinia also have local versions that may be slightly distinct from the two main denominations from Lombardy and Campania.[118]
Fromsouthern Italy, especiallyNaples, but widespread throughout, arestruffoli, a type of deep-fried dough. Known as early as the 17th century, the name may derive from the Greekstrongoulos, which means 'round'.[119] A similar dish is described byArchestratus, a Greek poet fromGela, Sicily. It was calledenkris (Greek:ἐγκρίς)—a dough-ball fried in olive oil, which he details in hisGastronomy; a work now lost, but partially preserved in theDeipnosophistae ofAthenaeus, which mentionsenkris 13 times, in variousinflected forms.[120]
Panforte is a traditional chewy Italiandessert containing fruits and nuts. It is similar to aflorentine but much thicker, or a somewhat like alebkuchen. Known throughout Italy, it is a Christmas tradition associated most especially with theprovince of Siena.[121] Panforte dates back at least to the 13th century, in the Italian region ofTuscany. Documents from 1205, conserved in the State Archive of Siena, attest that bread flavored with pepper and honey (panes melati et pepati) was paid to the local monks and nuns of the monastery of Montecellesi (modern Monte Celso, nearFontebecci) as a tax ortithe which was due on 7 February that year.[122][123][124]
Literally, panforte means 'strong bread', derived from theLatinfortis,[125] which refers to the spicy flavour. Originally the Sienese called it "panpepato" ('peppered bread'), due to the strong pepper used. The original dessert was composed of wheat flour, honey, spices, dried figs, jam, pine nuts and was flavored with pepper.[126]
Currently there are many shops in Italy that produce panforte, each recipe being their own guarded interpretation of the original confection and packaged in distinctive wrapping. Usually a small wedge is served withcoffee or a dessert wine after a meal, although some enjoy it with their coffee at breakfast.
InSiena—which is regarded by many, if not most inhabitants of that city, as the panforte capital of Italy—it is sometimes said that panforte should properly contain 17 different ingredients, 17 being the number ofContrade within the city walls.
Bisciola is anartisanal Italian sweet leavened bread originating from theValtellina valley ofLombardy.[127] It is typically prepared for Christmas[127] during which time it is an essential component of Christmas festivities.[128] It is also known aspanettone valtellinese,[129]besciola, andpan di fich,[130] the latter a name in thelocal dialect literally translating asfig bread.
The termbisciola probably derives from theLatinbuccella (lit. 'morsel').[131] A legend states that in 1797,Napoleon was passing through the region and ordered his cook to prepare a sweet using local ingredients.[131] The cook obtained buckwheat flour, butter, dried figs, grapes, honey, and nuts, and created what came to be known as bisciola.[131] According toLa Cucina Italiana, Napoleon was never in Valtellina.[131] Since bisciola was traditionally a peasant food, its original recipe was never recorded and is likely an "ancient cake recipe".[131]
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Cavallucci is a richItalian Christmas pastry prepared withanise, walnuts,candied fruits,coriander, and flour. They areSienese in origin, and the name translates approximately to 'little horses'.[132] The chewybiscuits traditionally useTuscan millefiorihoney as an essential ingredient in the dough. The cookies were originally imprinted with the image of a horse (cavalli is the Italian term for horses).[133] The cookies sold today are a gentrified version of a pastry which is traceable to the reign ofLorenzo the Magnificent (1449–1492), when they were calledbiriquocoli.[134]
Many hypotheses are associated with the origin of its name. According to the most popular version of the story, cavallucci were served to travelers on horseback as a source of nourishment for long trips.[134] Along a similar vein, another speculation is that postal workers who delivered mail over long distances ate the cookies on a regular basis.[132] Additionally surmised is that these sweets were the usual snack of servants who worked in horse stables of rich Italian aristocrats in Siena, a city which gained its fame for horse racing.
Veneziana is a sweet of theLombard cuisine covered with sugar grains or almond icing.[135] It is served in two versions: the bigger one is consumed during Christmas,[136] likepanettone; the smaller one is eaten as breakfast, along withcappuccino, likecroissants. Veneziana is butter and flour-based and usessourdough as leavening;[137] the smaller version is usually plain, sometimes filled withcustard, while the bigger version containscandied orange.
The history of veneziana is very similar to the history of panettone, which was created around 15th century.[138] This sweet was once eaten during celebrations such as weddings and Christmas, while since the end ofWorld War II is considered a breakfast food. Buondì, a popular snack in Italy, is the industrial version of veneziana.
Pizzelle (sg.: pizzella) are traditionalItalian wafflecookies made fromflour,eggs,sugar,butter orvegetable oil, and flavoring (usuallyanise oranisette, less commonlyvanilla orlemon zest). Pizzelle can be hard and crisp or soft and chewy depending on the ingredients and method of preparation. It can be molded into various shapes, including in the tubular shape ofcannoli.
Pizzelle were originally made inOrtona, in theAbruzzo region of southern Italy. Many other cultures have developed a pizzelle-type cookie as part of their culture (for example, the NorwegianKrumkake). It is known to be one of the oldest cookies and is likely to have developed from the ancient Romancrustulum.[139]
Pizzelle are also known as ferratelle or nevole in some parts of Abruzzo.[140] Pizzelle are known as ferratelle in theLazio region of Italy. InMolise they may be called ferratelle, cancelle or pizzelle.[139]
Pizzelle are popular duringChristmas andEaster.[140] They are often found at Italian weddings, alongside other traditional pastries such ascannoli and traditional Italian cookies.
It is also common to sandwich two pizzelle with cannoli cream (ricotta blended with sugar) or hazelnut spread. Pizzelle, while still warm, can also be rolled into a tubular shape using a woodendowel to create cannoli shells.
Mustacciuoli (also known as mustaccioli or mostaccioli) is a traditionalpastry fromNaples, usually served atChristmas time. Mustaccioli takes the form of aparallelogram, and consist of a soft, spiced, cake-like interior, covered inchocolate. In recent years, they are many variations of mostaccioli sold in Naples, where the chocolate glaze may be replaced by awhite chocolate frosting or icing sugar andcandied fruit.[141][142]
Mustacciolis are often sold alongside other Neapolitan sweets including Roccocò, raffiuoli, susamielli, andstruffoli at Christmas time. Neapolitan mostacciolis were mentioned byBartolomeo Scappi, personal cook ofPope Pius V as part of hispranzo alli XVIII di ottobre (18 October lunch).[143]
Zelten is a traditionalItalianfruitcake fromSouth Tyrol prepared duringChristmas.[144] It is prepared using rye flour, wheat flour, dried and candied fruits, orange zest and various spices. The name derives from the wordselten, a word in the nearby dialect meaning 'seldom', since it is usually only prepared once a year.[145]
Mandorlato is a dessert produced in theCologna Veneta area, typical of the Christmas holidays, produced with four ingredients: honey, sugar, egg white and almonds. The exact date of the invention of this dessert is not known, although it is credible that mandorlato was already known and appreciated at the time of theRepublic of Venice,[146] which seems to have spread the name toOttoman Greece. Cologna Veneta (from 1406 to 1797) was considered an integral part of the Venetian possessions. A first reference to mandorlato[147] is contained in Lodovico Dolce's text in 1540.
Thecinepanettoni (sg.:cinepanettone) are a series offarcicalcomedy films, one or two of which are scheduled for release annually in Italy during the Christmas period. The films were originally produced byAurelio De Laurentiis'Filmauro studio.[148] Despite their critical reception, by 2002, the films had grossed 700 billionlire ($350 million).[148] Starting in 1983 withVacanze di Natale ('Christmas Holidays') byCarlo Vanzina, some farcical or comic movie were released every year around Christmas time in Italy, and were known ascinepanettoni, aPortmanteau ofItalian:cine forcinema, andpanettone is a type of sweet bread traditionally eaten at Christmas.
These films are usually focused on the holidays of stereotypical Italians: bungling, wealthy and presumptuous members of the middle class who visit famous, glamorous or exotic places. Films were set for example in theNetherlands (Merry Christmas, 2001),Egypt (Christmas in Egypt –Natale sul Nilo, 2002),India (Christmas in India –Natale in India, 2003),America (Christmas inMiami, 2005, orChristmas inNew York, 2006),Cortina d'Ampezzo (Christmas holidays in Cortina –Vacanze di Natale a Cortina, 2011). Directors includedCarlo Vanzina,Enrico Oldoini, andNeri Parenti. Many of the screenplays are not related to Christmas, other than those set in Italy.
In Italy,New Year's Eve (Italian:Vigilia di Capodanno orNotte di San Silvestro) is celebrated by the observation of traditional rituals, such as wearing redunderwear. An ancient tradition insouthern regions which is rarely followed today was disposing of old or unused items by dropping them from the window.
Dinner is traditionally eaten with relatives and friends. It often includeszampone orcotechino (a meal made withpig's trotters or entrails), lentils and (innorthern Italy)polenta. At 20:30, thePresident of Italy's address to the nation, produced byRAI, the state broadcaster, is broadcast countrywide on radio and TV networks.
Rarely followed today is the tradition that consist in eating lentil stew when the bell tolls midnight, one spoonful per bell. This is supposed to bring good fortune; the round lentils represent coins.
Usually the evening is spent with family or friends in a square (where concerts or various parties are organised) but also at home. Generally, starting from 10 seconds before midnight, it is customary to count down until reaching zero, thus wishing a happy new year, toasting withspumante and watching or lighting fireworks, shooting firecrackers or guns loaded with blanks.
On television,Rai 1 broadcasts a special to welcome the New Year at 21:00 calledL'anno che verrà hosted byAmadeus with musical guests, surprises and many more.
Media related toChristmas in Italy at Wikimedia Commons
He was responsible for staging the first living Nativity scene or creche, in Christian history; and he was also Christianity's first stigmatic. He shares the honor of being patron saint of Italy with Saint Catherine of Siena. His feast day is celebrated on October 4, the day of his death; many churches, including the Anglican, Lutheran, and Episcopal churches, commemorate this with the blessing of the animals.
Francis Weiser (1952) says that the first known depiction of the nativity scene, found in the catacombs of Rome, dates from AD 380.
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