Canada has served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including everyUnited Nations (UN)peacekeeping effort from its inception until 1989.^[1] More than 125,000 Canadians have served in international peacekeeping operations, with approximately 130 Canadians having died during these operations.^[2] Canada's support formultilateralism andinternationalism has been closely related to its peacekeeping efforts.^[3][4][5] Canada actively promotesits domestically shared values through itsforeign affairs engagements.^[6][7]

Canada's role in the development of and participation inpeacekeeping during the 20th century led to its reputation as a positivemiddle power.^[8][9] Canada's successful role in mediating the 1956Suez Canal Crisis gave it credibility and established it as a country fighting for the common good of all nations.^[10][11] The Canadian public came to identify the nation's peacekeeping role as the country's top contribution in international affairs.^[12][13][14]

Canada faced controversy over its involvement in some peacekeeping efforts resulting in a military reassessment in the late 1990s.^[15] By the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts greatly declined, with its military participation reallocated to UN-sanctioned operations through theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).^[16] This military reallocation resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions, rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.^[17]

Canada's foreign policy of peacekeeping,peace enforcement,peacemaking, andpeacebuilding has been intertwined with its tendency to pursuemultilateral andinternational solutions since the end ofWorld War II.^{[19][20][21][22]} Canada's central role in the development of peacekeeping in the mid 1950s gave it credibility and established it as a country fighting for the "common good" of all nations.^[23] Canada has since been engaged with theUnited Nations,NATO and theEuropean Union (EU) in promoting itsmiddle power status into an active role in world affairs.^[24][25]

The "golden age of Canadian diplomacy" refers to a period in Canadian history, typically considered to be the mid-twentieth century, when Canada experienced a high level of success in its foreign relations and diplomatic efforts.^[26] In the early Cold-War years, Canada served as a mediator in international conflicts.^[27] The notion of peacekeeping became deeply embedded inCanadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from itsclosest ally, the United States.^[28][13][29]

Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations,^[30][31] such as theVietnam War or the2003 Invasion of Iraq.^[30][31] Canada has participated in US-led, UN-sanctioned operations such as thefirst Gulf War, inAfghanistan andLibya.^[30][31] The country also participates with its NATO allies in UN-sanctioned missions, such as theKosovo Conflict and inHaiti.^[30][31]

External videos
"Peace Operations " –Historica Canada - Record of Service. (2:45)
The Lost Heritage Minute - “Lester B. Pearson” (variously called “Cyprus” and “Peacekeepers”)" – Historica Canada. -Heritage Minutes (1:02)

Lester B. Pearson, theCanadian Minister of Foreign Affairs, had become a very prominent figure in the United Nations during its infancy and found himself in a peculiar position in 1956 during theSuez Crisis.^[32] Pearson and Canada found themselves mediating a conflict involving their closest allies when the United States opposed theBritish, French, and Israeli invasion of Egypt.^[33] During United Nations meetings, Pearson proposed to thesecurity council that aUnited Nations police force be established to prevent furtherconflict in the region, allowing the countries involved an opportunity to sort out a resolution.^[34] Pearson's proposal would intercede and divide the combatants, and form a buffer zone or 'human shield' between the opposing forces, offering to dedicate 1,000 Canadian soldiers to that cause was seen as a brilliant political move that prevented another war.^[33][35]

Pearson would be awarded theNobel Peace Prize in 1957 and be called "the father of modern peacekeeping" for his role during the Suez Crisis.^[36][37][38] He would go on to serve as the 14thPrime Minister of Canada from 1963 to 1968 overseeingthe creation of thedistinctly Canadian flag that is worn by Canadian peacekeepers.^[39] During the Suez Crisis, Pearson was disturbed when the Egyptian government originally objected to Canadian forces as theCanada's Red Ensign contained the same symbol (theUnion Flag) used by theUnited Kingdom, one of the belligerents.^[40] Pearson in 1967 summarized Canadian foreign policy as "based on Canadian considerations,Canadian values and Canadian interests."^[41]

Canada participated in every UN peacekeeping effort from its inception until 1989.^[1] Prior to the creation of the formal UN peacekeeping system, Canada had engaged in UN intervention operations, notably the 1948 mission in the secondKashmir conflict.^[42] Since 1953 Canada has been involved in thefirst international unified command (UNCMAC) in support of the ongoingarmistice between North and South Korea,^[43] and played a central role in theInternational Control Commission (ICC), which tried tobroker peace in Vietnam beginning in 1954.^[44]

External videos
" Dextraze in the Congo" – Historica Canada. -Heritage Minutes (1:01 min)

High-profile UN peacekeeping missions involving Canada include those inCongo (1961),Cyprus (1964),Lebanon (1978),Angola (1989),Somalia (1992),Rwanda (1993),East Timor (1999),Haiti (2004),Mali (2013), and observation missions in theSinai Peninsula and Golan Heights during the mid-1970s.^[45] Canada also participated inmultiple missions in the Balkans with the UN, NATO and the EU in Croatia from 1991 to 1995; Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1992 to 2010; Kosovo from 1998 to 1999; and the former Republic of Macedonia in 2001.^[46]

Since 1989, theRoyal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) have been involved in peacekeeping missions related to training law enforcement personnel,^[47] notably the United NationsCivilian Police Mission in Haiti (MIPONUH) from 1997 to 2000^[48][49] and the NATO led missions inAfghanistan for over a decade.^[49]

Canada provided the most amount of UN peacekeepersduring the Cold War with approximately 80,000 personnel – equivalent to 10 percent of total UN forces.^[50][51] In all, more than 125,000 Canadian men and women military personnel, civilians, diplomats – including over 4,000Canadian police officers – have served in peacekeeping operations.^[52] Approximately 130 Canadians have died in service of peacekeeping operations, with 123 of these deaths occurring during UN missions.^[2]

Canada's ongoing participation inUnited Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (Operation Snowgoose) that began in 1964, has seen over 33,000 Canadians serve with 28 deaths.^[53] Canada's largest contribution of approximately 40,000 personnel and resulting in 23 deaths, took place from 1992 to 2010 in multiple operations in theBalkans during and after theYugoslav Wars.^[54] The death of nine Canadian Armed Forces personnel when theirBuffalo 461 wasshot down over Syria on August 9, 1974, remains the largest single death toll in Canadian peacekeeping history.^[55][56] TheUnited Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti saw the death of two Canadian RCMP peacekeepers as a result of the2010 earthquake.^[57]

Canada's "high point" of participation took place in April 1993, when there was 3,336 Canadian UN peacekeepers,^[58] with a record low number of 17 UN designated CAF members and 9 police officers deployed in July 2024.^[58] Canada's military in the same period had over 3,000 personneldeployed overseas in multiple non-peacekeeping operations.^[59] Canada has been criticized domestically and internationally for its non-fulfillment of UN personnel commitments in the 21st century.^{[14][60][61][62]}

Assessments of peacekeeping operations deemed they are generally successful, usually resulted in long-term peace.^[63] Thepost–Cold War era has seen the concept and practice of peacekeeping evolve significantly.^[64] Traditionally focused on ceasefire monitoring and maintaining stability in conflict zones, peacekeeping missions evolved to have a wider range of activities including; peace enforcement, protecting civilians, promoting human rights, and supporting political processes in post-conflict societies.^[65]

External videos
"Canada's peacekeepers face a troubled world " –CBC News: The National. 2016 (5:10 mins)

Critics argue that Canadian personnel may not consistently had the necessary training or resources to successfully navigate complex and volatile environments, leading to mixed results in their peacekeeping and peace enforcement efforts.^[66] Other criticisms include the perceived lack of clear objectives and mission parameters.^[13]

Canadian troops have been accused of being complicit in human rights abuses,^[67] notably in 1993 when theCanadian Armed Forces were deployed during theSomali Civil War to supportUNOSOM I in a peace enforcement capacity.^{[68][69][70][71]} Soldiers from theCanadian Airborne Regiment tortured and killed a 16-year-old youth who broke into the encampment.^[72][73] Known as theSomalia affair, the incident has been described as "the darkest era in thehistory of the Canadian military" and led to the regiment's disbandment.^[72][74]

Canadian troops and the UN system have been accused of failing to adequately protect civilian populations in conflict zones,^[75] notably in 1994 when Canadian troops were deployed to theUnited Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda. The mission was criticized for the perceived failure to prevent or intervene in thegenocide that occurred, despite Canadian GeneralRoméo Dallaire warning top UN officials of an impending humanitarian crisis.^[76][77] On 11 January 1994, General Dallaire, commander ofUNAMIR, sent his "now infamous genocide fax" toUN headquarters, stating [the informant] has been ordered to register allTutsi inKigali to prepare "for their extermination".^[76]

A period of reassessment took place in late 1990s within the Canadian military and the United Nations after the Somalia and Rwanda missions.^[78] This led to the UN Security Council reducing the number of new operations,^[79] and thus a significant decline in Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts.^[2] Canada began redeploying its military efforts to multilateral UN-sanctionedoperations through NATO, rather than directly to the UN by the turn of the century.^[16] Despite the military reallocation the Canadian public views its smaller peacekeeping efforts in the 21st century as its "most important contribution to the world".^[14][80] A 2024 poll byCanWaCH found that 77% of Canadians believe it's important forCanada to help other countries in need.^[81]

External videos
"Canada marks 10 years since the Afghanistan military mission's end" –CBC News: The National. 2024 (2;49 mins)

The military reallocation in the 21st century resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions, where Canadian troops were tasked with combat and security support roles rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.^[17] Most notably inseveral missions and campaigns in support of the globalwar on terror.^[82][83]Canada's participation in the Afghanistan war (2001–2014) saw165 Canadian deaths, the largest for any single Canadian military mission since theKorean War in the early 1950s.^[84][85] Many within Canadian society expressed opposition to Canada's combative roles in Afghanistan on the grounds that it was inconsistent with Canada's historic role of peacekeeping.^[86][87] The Canadian government rhetoric of peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peacebuilding in support of the Afghanistan war despite Canada's combat roles was a point of contention within Canadian society.^[88]

Alongside many domestic obligations and a few ongoing peacekeeping missions such as theMultinational Force and Observers operation in the Sinai Peninsula, the Canadian Armed Forces, police and civilian personnel are currentlydeployed in multiple foreign military operations.^[89] Notable missions include;Operation Unifier inUkraine training military personnel,Operation Caribbe in theCaribbean Sea related to the elimination of organized crime, Operation Projection in theAsia-Pacific,Euro-Atlantic and African regions in support of NATO operations related to maritime security andOperation Impact as part of themilitary intervention against ISIL.^[89]

UN contributions (2022)

Member state	% of UN budget[90]
United States	22.000
China	15.254
Japan	8.033
Germany	6.111
United Kingdom	4.375
France	4.318
Italy	3.189
Canada	2.628

The unpredictability of peacekeeping operations makes forecasting costs a challenging task for policymakers and budget planners.^[91] Canada has always fulfilled its financial commitment to the UN by paying its dues "in full, on time and without conditions" unlike other nations.^[14][91]

In 2022 Canada was the eighth-largest UN peace operations financial contributor with approximately $198.8 million for ongoing missions worldwide.^[92] Canada in total allocated $2.49 billion tomultiple UN organizations including those related to peacekeeping, policing, research, training, climate change and humanitarian efforts such as medicine and food distribution.^[93] Canada's total military expenditure in the same period was approximately $26.9 billion, or around 1.2 percent of the country'sgross domestic product (GDP) — placing it 14th formilitary expenditure by country.^[94]

TheSomalia Medal, acampaign medal created in 1992 to recognize Canadian military personnel who participated inthe international military coalition invasion to stabilize Somalia, has been awarded to 1,422 individuals.^[96] In 1992,Reconciliation: The Peacekeeping Monument was completed, commemorating Canada's role in international peacekeeping and the soldiers and police officers who have participated and are currently participating, both living and dead.^[97] The 1995Canadian one-dollar coin displays thePeacekeeping Monument.^[98] This commemoration was followed by the 2001$10 Canadian banknote named "remembrance and peacekeeping" that depicts a female peacekeeper.^[99]

In 1988, the Nobel Peace Prize wasawarded to United Nations peacekeepers, inspiring the creation of theCanadian Peacekeeping Service Medal in 1999 that has been awarded to over 75,000 Canadians.^[100][101] Since 2008, after a campaign by theCanadian Association of Veterans in United Nations Peacekeeping, August 9 has officially beenNational Peacekeepers' Day in Canada,^[102] with ceremonies taking place throughout the country at memorials andPeacekeeper Parks.^[103]

Below is a list of high-profile UN peacekeeping missions undertaken by Canada from 1947 to present, with Canadian operational names listed when assigned.^[104]

• Canadian honours order of wearing
• International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers
• List of wars involving Canada
• Pearson Medal of Peace
• United Nations Department of Peace Operations
• United Nations Military Observer
• United Nations Police
• Women in peacekeeping

Wikimedia Commons has media related toPeacekeeping missions of Canada.

• Peacekeeping timeline -The Canadian Encyclopedia
• Canada and international peacekeeping -Veterans Affairs Canada
• Peace support operations (1954-present) -Government of Canada
• Current peace operations -Royal Canadian Mounted Police
• Peacekeeping -Valour Canada
• Peacekeeping - canadiansoldiers.com (CSC)

Archives

• Peacekeeping (CBC Archives search) -Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
• Peacekeeping (archive search) -Department of National Defence andCanadian Armed Forces

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• Canada and the United Nations
• Canada and NATO
• Foreign relations of Canada

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