Themilitary history of Canada spans centuries of conflicts within the country, as well as international engagements involving theCanadian military. TheIndigenous nations of Canada engaged in conflicts with one another for millennia. The arrival of European settlers in the 17th century led to new alliances and hostilities among Indigenous nations andcolonial powers, leading to conflicts such as theBeaver Wars.
The late 17th and 18th centuries sawfour major British-French conflicts fought in Canada, culminating with the Britishconquest ofNew France in 1760. This reshaped the region and contributed to theAmerican Revolutionary War, during which American attempts toseize Quebec andspark a revolt in Nova Scotia failed.
The 19th century brought both external threats and internal challenges toBritish North America. While its colonies repelled American invasions during theWar of 1812, theRebellions of 1837–1838 andFenian raids highlighted the need for militia reforms and contributed toCanadian Confederation in 1867. The end of the century saw Canadian units become involved in British imperial conflicts like theNile Expedition andSecond Boer War.
In the 20th century, Canada played a significant role in bothWorld Wars. AfterWorld War II, it embracedmultilateralism, with its military participating in international coalitions andpeacekeeping missions, including theKorean War and theGulf War. In the 21st century, Canada has continued its involvement in multilateral military coalitions, contributing to missions in theGreater Middle East and Mali.
Warfare took place throughout the continent at various levels of in intensity, frequency and decisiveness. Periods of raiding occurred even insubarctic areas that had sufficient population density.[1] However,Inuit groups in the extreme northernArctic typically avoided direct warfare due to their small populations, relying ontraditional law to resolve conflicts.[2] Conflict was waged for economic and political reasons, such as asserting their tribal independence, securing resources and territory, exacting tribute, and controlling trade routes. Additionally, conflicts arose for personal and tribal honour, seeking revenge for perceived wrongs.[3][4]
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Inpre-contact Canada,Indigenous warriors relied primarily on thebow and arrow, having honed their archery skills through their hunting practices. Knives, hatchets/tomahawks and warclubs were used for hand-to-hand combat.[4] Some conflicts took place over great distances, with a few military expeditions travelling as far as 1,200 to 1,600 kilometres (750 to 990 mi).[4]
Warfare tended to be formal and ritualistic, resulting in few casualties.[5] However, major conflicts sometimes occurred. The St. Lawrence ValleyIroquois were also almost completely displaced, likely due to warfare with their neighbours theAlgonquin.[6] The threat of conflict impacted how some groups lived, withAlgonquian and Iroquois groups residing in fortified villages with layers of defences and woodenpalisades at least 10-metre-tall (33 ft) by 1000 CE.[4]
Captives from battles were not always killed. Tribes frequently adopted them to replenish lost warriors or used them forprisoner exchanges.[7][8][9] Slavery was common among thePacific Northwest Coast's Indigenous people like theTlingit andHaida, with around a quarter of the region's population being enslaved.[9] In certain societies, slavery was hereditary, with slaves and their descendants beingprisoners of war.[9]
Several First Nations also formed alliances with one another, like theIroquois League.[10] Thesemilitary alliances became important to European colonial powers in their struggle for North American hegemony during the 17th and 18th centuries.[11]
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The first clash between Europeans and Indigenous peoples likely transpired around 1003, duringNorse attempts to settle North America's northeastern coast, such as atL'Anse aux Meadows.[12] Although relations were initially peaceful, conflict arose between the Norse and local First Nations, orSkrælings, possibly due to the Norse's refusal to sell weapons. Indigenous bows and clubs proved effective againstNorse weaponry, and their canoes offered greater manoeuvrability in an environment they were familiar with. Outnumbered, the Norse abandoned the settlement.[13][14]
The first European-Indigenous engagements to occur in Canada during theAge of Discovery took place duringJacques Cartier's third expedition to the Americas from 1541 to 1542. Between 1577 and 1578, the Inuit clashed with English explorers underMartin Frobisher nearBaffin Island.[14]
Firearms began to make their way into Indigenous hands by the early 17th century, with significant acquisition starting in the 1640s.[4] The arrival of firearms made fighting between Indigenous groups bloodier and more decisive,[15] especially as tribes got embroiled in the economic and military rivalries of European settlers. Unequal access to firearms and horses significantly amplified bloodshed in Indigenous conflicts.[16] By the end of the 17th century,Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands and theeastern subarctic rapidly transitioned to firearms, supplanting the bow.[17] Though firearms predominated, the bow and arrow saw limited use into the early 18th century as a covert weapon for surprise attacks.[4]
EarlyEuropean colonies in Canada include the French settlement ofPort-Royal in 1605 and the English settlement ofCuper's Cove five years later.[18] French claims stretched to theMississippi River valley, where fur trappers and colonists established scattered settlements.[19] TheFrench built a series of forts to defend these settlements,[20] although some were also used as trading posts.[20]New France's two main colonies,Acadia on the Bay of Fundy andCanada on the St. Lawrence River, relied mainly on the fur trade.[21] These colonies grew slowly due to difficult geographical and climatic circumstances.[22] By 1706, its population was around 16,000.[23][24][25] By the mid-1700s, New France had about one-tenth of the population of the BritishThirteen Colonies to the south.[26][27] In addition to the Thirteen Colonies, the English chartered seasonal fishing settlements inNewfoundland Colony and claimedHudson Bay and its drainage basin, known asRupert's Land, through theHudson's Bay Company (HBC).[28]
The earlymilitary of New France was made up of regulars from theFrench Royal Army andNavy, supported by thecolonial militia.[29] Initially composed of soldiers from France, New France's military evolved to include volunteers raised within the colony by 1690. Many French soldiers stationed in New France also chose to stay after their service, fostering a tradition of generational service and the creation of a military elite.[30][31] By the 1750s, most New Frenchmilitary officers were born in the colony.[30] New France's military also relied onIndigenous allies for support to mitigate the manpower advantage of the Thirteen Colonies.[32] This relationship significantly impacted New French military practices, like the adoption of Indigenousguerrilla tactics by its military professionals.[14][33]
The Beaver Wars (1609–1701) were intermittent conflicts involving theIroquois Confederacy, New France, and France's Indigenous allies.[34] By the 17th century, several First Nations' economies relied heavily on theregional fur trade with Europeans.[35] The French quickly joined pre-existing Indigenous alliances such as theHuron-Algonquin alliance, bringing them into conflict with the Iroquois Confederacy,[35][36][37] who initially aligned withDutch colonists and later with theEnglish.[38] As a result, the primary threat against New France in its early years were the Iroquois, particularly the easternmostKanien'kehá:ka, known to Europeans as the Mohawk.[39]
Conflict between the French and Iroquois likely arose from the latter's ambition to control the beaver pelt trade.[35] However, some scholars posit Iroquoian hegemonic ambitions as a factor, while others suggest these were "mourning wars" to replenish populations in the wake of theepidemic that afflicted Indigenous peoples. Regardless, Iroquois hostilities against First Nations of the St. Lawrence Valley and Great Lakes disrupted the fur trade and drew the French into the wider conflict.[14]
Initially, the French offered limited support to their Indigenous allies, providing iron arrowheads and knives, but few firearms.[14][40] Although France's Indigenous allies saw some success, the Iroquois gained the initiative after adopting tactics that integrated Indigenous hunting skills and terrain knowledge with firearms acquired from the Dutch.[41] Access to firearms proved decisive, enabling the Iroquois to wage an effective guerrilla war.[35]
After depleting the beaver population within their lands, the Iroquois launched several expansionist campaigns, raiding the Algonquin in theOttawa Valley and attacking the French in the 1630s and 1640s.[35] These attacks caused the dispersion of theNeutral,Petun, andHuron Confederacy, along with the systematic destruction ofHuronia.[14][35] The string of Iroquois victories isolated the French from their Algonquin allies and left its settlements defenceless. Exploiting this, the Iroquois negotiated a favourable peace, requiring French Jesuits and soldiers to relocate to Iroquois villages so they could aid in their defence.[14]
Hostilities resumed between the two sides in 1658 when the French withdrew their Iroquois missions.[14] After years of expansionist campaigns in the mid-1650s, the outbreak of a wider front in 1659 and 1660 strained the Confederacy.[35] To secure a favourable peace, the French sent theCarignan-Salières Regiment in 1665,[14] the first uniformed professional soldiers station in Canada, and whose members formed the core of theCompagnies Franches de la Marine militia.[42] The regiment's arrival led the Iroquois to agree to peace in 1667.[14]
After the 1667 peace, the French formed alliances with First Nations further west, most of whom conflicted with the Iroquois. The French provided them with firearms and encouraged them to attack the Iroquois. They also solidified ties with theAbenaki in Acadia, who were harassed by the Iroquois. Hostilities resumed in the 1680s when the Iroquois targeted Frenchcoureurs de bois and theIllinois Confederation, a French ally. French-allied expeditions were launched in 1684 and 1687, though only the latter saw some success.[14][43]
In 1689, the Iroquois launched new attacks, including theLachine massacre, to support their English allies during theNine Years' War and in retaliation for the 1687 expedition.[35] However, after a flurry of raids by France's western allies and a Franco-Indigenous expedition led by Governor GeneralLouis de Buade de Frontenac in 1696, the weakened Iroquois opted to negotiate peace.[35] TheGreat Peace of Montreal was signed in 1701 between the Iroquois, France, and 38 other First Nations. The terms saw the Iroquois agree to remain neutral in Anglo-French conflicts in return for trade benefits. This weakened the English-Iroquois trading relationship andCovenant Chain.[43]
English-French hostilities over colonial interests first escalated in 1613 whenSamuel Argall and his sailorsrazed the French settlement of Port-Royal with little resistance to secure the Bay of Fundy fisheries for the Englishcolony of Virginia.[44]
During the 1627–1629 Anglo-French War, the English authorizedDavid Kirke to conduct raids against the French in Canada and settle the area. Kirke's forcesseized a French supply fleet andTadoussac in 1628, andcaptured Quebec City the next year.[45]
Scottish settlers founded settlements in seized French territories like Port-Royal andBaleine. However, French forces destroyed Baleine just two months after its founding in 1629.[46] In 1630, an Anglo-Scottish attack againstFort St. Louis, one of France's last remaining Acadian strongholds, was repulsed.[47] French settlements that were seized during the war were returned in the 1632Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.[45][46]
Acadia fell intocivil war in the mid-17th century.[48] After Lieutenant GovernorIsaac de Razilly died in 1635, Acadia was split administratively.Charles de Menou d'Aulnay ruled from Port-Royal andCharles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour governed fromSaint John.[49][50] Unclear boundaries overs administrative authority led to conflict between the two governors.[49]
In 1640, La Tour forces attacked Port-Royal.[51] In response, d'Aulnay imposed a five-month blockade on Saint John. La Tour's forces overcame the blockade and retaliated with an attack on Port-Royal in 1643.[52] In April 1645, d'Aulney besieged and captured Saint John, after hearing of La Tour's departure to meet his supporters in New England.[53] d'Aulney governed all of Acadia from 1645 until he died in 1650, having gained favour with the French government by informing them of La Tour's attempt to seek aid from the English in New England.[49] After d'Aulney's death, La Tour returned to France and regained his reputation and governorship over Acadia in 1654.[52]
English forces underRobert Sedgwick invaded Acadia in 1654, several years after the Acadian Civil War and years of neglect from French court. La Tour was captured and taken prisoner to London, where an agreement was reached withOliver Cromwell to have La Tour's title to Acadia recognized, on the condition that he recognized English authority and repaid the costs of Sedgwick's invasion. La Tour eventually sold proprietorship of Acadia toThomas Temple andWilliam Crowne in 1656, who governed the territory until the English relinquished Acadia back to France following theSecond Anglo-Dutch War.[49][54]
TheSecond Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) resulted from tensions betweenEngland and theDutch Republic, driven partly by competition over maritime dominance and trade routes. In 1664,Michiel de Ruyter was instructed to retaliate against the English seizures ofDutch East India Company assets inWest Africa by attacking English ships.[55] In 1665, his fleet raided English settlements and shipping, includingSt. John's, Newfoundland.[56][57] The treaty that ended the conflict saw the English return Acadia to the French, a region they had seized in 1654.[58]
In 1673, during theThird Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674), aDutch fleet raided English colonies in North America, including fishing fleets and shore facilities at Ferryland, Newfoundland.[59]
During the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), English and French forces clashed in North America in a conflict known asKing William's War. Governor General Frontenac initially devised an invasion to conquer theProvince of New York to isolate the Iroquois, although the plan was later scaled back. In February 1690, three New French-First Nations military expeditions were launched against New England. Oneattacked Schenectady, anotherraided Salmon Falls, while a thirdbesieged Fort Loyal. New France also urged other First Nations allies to conduct raids along theEnglish American frontier and promotedscalpings forpsychological warfare.[32]
After several attacks from New France'spetite guerre,[60] the English launched two retaliatory expeditions.[32] A naval expedition sailed in 1690 to capture Quebec City but arrived just before the St. Lawrence River froze in mid-October, leaving little time to achieve its objective due to poor organization.[61] After afailed landing at Beauport, English forces withdrew.[62] Another English expedition was repulsed at theBattle of La Prairie in 1691.[32] The English also attacked Acadian settlements, includingPort Royal,Chedabucto,Chignecto, andFort Nashwaak.[63]
In 1696,Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was tasked withattacking English fishing stations and expel the English from Newfoundland.[64][65] Setting sail from Plaisance, the French administrative capital for the island,[65] d'Iberville's squadron razedSt John's in November 1696, destroyed English fisheries along Newfoundland's eastern shore, as smaller raiding parties looted remote English hamlets, seizing prisoners.[66] After four months, Iberville destroyed 36 settlements, leaving onlyBonavista andCarbonear under English control by the end of March 1697.[67]
During the war, the French strengthened their control over Hudson Bay, having already seized several HBC forts inan expedition two years before the war. French attempts to captureYork Factory, HBC's only remaining fort around Hudson's Bay, included a failed effort in 1690 and itsbrief capture in 1694, although the English later recaptured the fort. The French finally secured York Factory after theBattle of Hudson's Bay in 1697.[68]
The 1697Peace of Ryswick ended the war, and required the return of territorial gains in North America. The HBC was also forced to surrender all butone fort on Hudson Bay. After the peace, the English and French reinforced their alliances and trade relations with Indigenous groups. It also paved the way for the end of the Beaver Wars in 1701.[69][70]
The Nine Years' War intersected with an ongoing conflict between the English and maritime Algonquians, who had been attacking English settlements in retaliation against their territorial encroachment shortly before the English-French conflict started.[32]
French missionaries and settlers living in maritime Algonquian villages inflamed their hostilities with England to France's benefit. The French sabotaged English-maritime Algonquians peace talks in 1693, encouraging their ally to continue fighting. The French also encouraged the Abenaki andMi'kmaq to engage in privateering orbuccaneering with theFrench Navy, taking part in thenaval battle off St. John and thesecond siege of Pemaquid in 1696.[32]
During the 18th century, the British–French struggle in Canada intensified as the rivalry worsened in Europe.[71] The French government increased its military spending in its North American colonies, maintaining expansive garrisons at remote fur trading posts, improving the fortifications in Quebec City, and constructing a new fortified town onÎle Royale,Louisbourg, dubbed the "Gibraltar of the North" or the "Dunkirk of America."[72]
New France and theNew England Colonies engaged in three wars during the 18th century.[71] The first two of these conflicts,Queen Anne's War andKing George's War, stemmed from broader European conflicts—theWar of the Spanish Succession and theWar of the Austrian Succession. The final conflict, theFrench and Indian War, began in theOhio Valley, and evolved into theSeven Years' War. During this period, theCanadienpetite guerre tactics ravaged northern towns and villages of New England and travelled as far south as Virginia and the Hudson Bay shore.[73][74]
During the War of the Spanish Succession, English and French forces clashed in North America in a conflict known asQueen Anne's War (1702–1713). The conflict primarily focused on Acadia and New England, as Canada and New York informally agreed to remain neutral. Initially neutral, the French-aligned Abenaki were drawn into the conflict due to English hostilities.[32]
Raids between Acadians and New Englanders took place throughout the war, including theraid on Grand Pré in 1704 and theBattle of Bloody Creek in 1711.[75] The raid on Grand Pré, launched by New England forces, was in retaliation for a French-First Nationsraid on Deerfield in the BritishProvince of Massachusetts Bay. Similar raids in Massachusetts included theraid on Haverhill.[32] The Frenchbesieging St. John's in 1705 and captured the city after abattle in 1709.[76][77]
The French suffered a major setback when the British captured the Acadian capital of Port-Royal after three-sieges. Although the French repelledtwo sieges in 1707, the British succeeded after athird siege in 1710.[78] Building on this success, the British launched theQuebec Expedition to capture the capital of New France. However, the expedition was abandoned when its fleet was wrecked by the waters of the St. Lawrence River.[76]
The ensuingPeace of Utrecht saw the French surrender substantial North American territory. This included returning Hudson Bay lands to the HBC and relinquishing claims to Newfoundland and Acadia, though retaining fishing rights in parts of Newfoundland.[79] However, due to a dispute over the size of Acadia, the French maintained control over its western portion (present-day New Brunswick).[80] The French also continued its relationship with the Abenaki and Mi'kmaq in Acadia and encouraged them to attack the British.[32] After the conflict, the French built the Fortress of Louisbourg to protect its remaining Acadian settlements on Île-Royale andÎle Saint-Jean,[80] while the British quickly built new outposts to secure its Acadian holdings.[32]
Although British-French hostilities ended in 1713, conflict persisted between the maritime Algonquians and the British, with the Mi’kmaq seizing 40 British ships from 1715 to 1722.[32][81] In May 1722 Lieutenant GovernorJohn Doucett took 22 Mi'kmaq hostages toAnnapolis Royal to prevent the capital from being attacked.[82] In July, the Abenaki and Mi'kmaq initiated a blockade of Annapolis Royal, aiming to starve the capital.[83] Due to increasing tensions, Massachusetts GovernorSamuel Shute declared war on theAbenaki on July 22.[84] Early engagements during the war took place in the Nova Scotia.[85][86] In July 1724, 60 Mi'kmaq and Maliseets raided Annapolis Royal.[87]
The treaty that ended the war marked a major change in European relations with the maritime Algonquians, as it granted the British the right to settle in traditional Abenaki and Mi'kmaq lands.[32] The treaty was also the first formal recognition by a European power that its control over Nova Scotia was dependent on negotiation with its Indigenous inhabitants. The treaty was invoked as recently as 1999 in theDonald Marshall case.[88]
TheFox Wars, was an intermittent conflict from 1712 to the 1730s between New France and its Indigenous allies against theMeskwaki.[14][89] The conflict highlighted how the New French military, supported by its allies, was able to inflict significant losses against enemies thousands of kilometres away from its Canadian core.[89]
In response to Meskwaki raids on coureurs de bois and indigenous allies, particularly the Illinois, New French troops were deployed westward in 1716 to confront the Meskwaki. Despite initial success in forcing them to seek peace, the attacks continued. With diplomatic efforts failing in the 1720s, New France resolved to exterminate the Meskwaki. Subsequent campaigns, including an Illinois-led siege in 1730, led to the death or enslavement of many Meskwaki. A final punitive expedition by New France to present-dayIowa in 1735 failed due to lack of support from Indigenous allies, who deemed the Meskwaki adequately punished.[14]
British and French forces clashed in the War of the Austrian Succession, with the North American theatre known asKing George's War (1744–1748). While maritime Algonquians swiftly allied with the French, many Indigenous groups in theGreat Lakes region hesitated to join, preferring to maintain trade ties with the British. These ties were deliberately fostered by the British prior to the war to weaken France's Indigenous alliances.[32]
Throughout the war, Acadians and Canadiens raided frontier British settlements,[90] withCanso,Annapolis Royal, andGrand Pré among the Nova Scotian settlements attacked.[91] French-Mohawk forces also attacked New England and New York,raiding Saratoga andbesieging Fort Massachusetts. However, the Mohawk were unwilling to join French excursions deeper into New York to avoid conflicts with other members of the Iroquois Confederacy.[32]
In 1745, a British-New England forcebesieged and captured Louisbourg.[92] The capture of Louisbourg significantly weakened Franco-Indigenous alliances around the Great Lakes as it isolated Quebec City from France and interrupted trade. As a result, the price of goods skyrocketed and the French could not provide annual gifts to secure its alliances. This caused some Indigenous nations to end their support for the French war effort, viewing the absence of gifts as a breach of alliance terms.[32] Thelargest military expedition to sail from Europe for the Americas was launched by the French in 1746, aiming to recapture Louisbourg. However, the expedition was unsuccessful due to adverse weather and illness affecting its troops.[93]
Although Louisbourg was captured, the British failed to advance further into New France after its forces weredefeated at Port-la-Joye in 1746.[32][90] The1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war and saw Louisbourg returned to France in exchange for territories in the Low Countries and India.[90] The forfeiture of Louisbourg outraged New Englanders. To combat France's continued presence in Acadia, the British established the military settlement ofHalifax andCitadel Hill in 1749.[94]
Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755) took place in Acadia and Nova Scotia, with the Mi'kmaq and Acadians, under the leadership of French priestJean-Louis Le Loutre,[95] opposing British and New England settlers, led by figures likeJohn Gorham andCharles Lawrence.[96] The Mi'kmaq and Acadians attacked British forts and newly established Protestant settlements to hinder British expansion and support France's Acadian resettlement efforts.[97]
After Halifax was established by the British, the Acadians and Mi'kmaqattacked Chignecto,Grand-Pré,Dartmouth, Canso, Halifax andCountry Harbour.[98] The French erected forts at present-day Saint John, Chignecto andFort Gaspareaux. The British responded by attacking the Mi'kmaq and Acadians at Mirligueche, Chignecto andSt. Croix,[99] and building forts in Acadian communities at Windsor, Grand-Pré, and Chignecto.[100] The conflict in Acadia ended after the Britishvictory at Fort Beauséjour and Le Loutre's subsequent capture in 1755.[100]
Acadia and Nova Scotia experienced unprecedented fortification building and troop deployments during the conflict,[95] along with amass exodus of Acadians and Mi'kmaq from Nova Scotia to the neighbouring French colonies of Île Saint-Jean and Île Royale.[101]
New French-British colonial hostilities culminated in theSeven Years' War. Although formal hostilities between France and Britain began in 1756, fighting erupted in North America in 1754 in what became known as the French and Indian War (1754–1760).[102] Disputes over theOhio Country prompted the French to construct a series forts in 1753, sparking hostilities with neighbouring British colonies in 1754.[103]
Most First Nations supported the French, largely due to their opposition to earlier British territorial policies. The British worked to undermine the Franco-Indigenous alliances by seeking the latter's neutrality through Iroquois intermediaries. The Iroquois Confederacy eventually entered the conflict as a British ally at theBattle of Fort Niagara in 1759.[32]
In 1754, the British planned a four-pronged attack against New France, with attacks planned againstFort Niagara on theNiagara River,Fort Saint-Frédéric on Lake Champlain,Fort Duquesne on the Ohio River, andFort Beauséjour at the border of French-held Acadia. The plan fell apart as forces sent to capture Niagara and Saint-Frédéric abandoned their campaigns, and theBraddock Expedition sent to capture Duquesne wasdefeated at Monongahela by a New French-First Nations force.[102][104][105] Although most of the plan had failed, the army sent to Acadia was successful at the Battle of Fort Beauséjour.[102] After Beauséjour, the British worked to consolidate control over Acadia, neutralizing the Acadians military potency and disrupting supply lines to Louisbourg, starting with theBay of Fundy campaign in 1755.[102][106] These campaigns resulted in theforced relocation of over 12,000 Acadians from Acadia during the war.[107]
In 1756, following the formal declaration of war between the British and French, the commander-in-chief of New France,Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial, devised a strategy to keep the British on the defensive and away from the populated areas of New France, like Canada. This resulted in French offensives like theBattle of Fort Oswego andSiege of Fort William Henry, and raids on British frontier settlements by the Canadian militia and First Nations allies. A small French army, supported by the militia and First Nations allies, effectively pinned down British forces at its frontier, prompting the dispatch of 20,000 additional soldiers to reinforceBritish America. Despite early success in tying down British forces, the French were hindered by limited resources, as most of France's army was engaged in Europe, unable to reinforce its colony.[102]
In July 1758, the British renewed its offensive against New France, although its initial invasion force of 15,000 soldiers weredefeated by a force of 3,800 soldiers near Fort Carillon.[108] However, in the following weeks, the French positioned worsened. The Britishcaptured Louisbourg after a month-long siege in June–July 1758 anddestroyed the French supply stock at Fort Frontenac in August 1758.[102][109] The French were also compelled abandon Fort Duquesne when some of their First Nations allies ageed to a separate peace agreement with the British.[102]
Following these victories, the British launched three campaigns against Canada: the first two targeted Niagara and Lake Champlain, while the third targeted Quebec City. After the French repelled the latter invasion force at theBattle of Beauport, British commander Major-GeneralJames Wolfe opted to besiege Quebec City. The three-month siege culminated in theBattle of the Plains of Abraham in September 1759, where French generalLouis-Joseph de Montcalm led a numerically inferior force out of the walled city to face the British. The French were defeated, with both Wolfe and Montcalm killed in battle.[110][111]
In April 1760, the French launched a campaign to retake Quebec City, defeating the British at theBattle of Sainte-Foy. After the battle, the British withdrew into thewalls of Quebec City's. The Frenchbesieged the city until May, when a British naval force defeated a French naval unit supporting the siege at theBattle of Pointe-aux-Trembles.[112] The arrival of the BritishRoyal Navy left New France virtually isolated from France.[102] As a result, the remaining French Army retreated to Montreal and, after itsfall, signed theArticles of Capitulation on 8 September, marking the completion of the British conquest of New France.[113] A week later, the British made peace with theSeven Nations of Canada, followed by France's maritime Algonquian allies in 1761.[32]
British naval supremacy was pivotal in the war's outcome, facilitating the capture of Louisbourg and Quebec City and blocking French reinforcements to the colony. This led to significant territorial concessions by France in theTreaty of Paris of 1763, including New France. However, the war burdened Britain with a massive financial debt. The absence of the French military threat also emboldened residents of the Thirteen Colonies, who no longer needed to rely on the British for military protection against the French.[102]
After the Seven Years' War in 1763, rumours circulated of a First Nations offensive on the British frontier. An alliance of First Nations led byOdawa chiefPontiac aimed to expel the British from the Great Lakes and Ohio Country. The alliance was forced to laysiege to Fort Detroit after learning the British were aware of their activities. The siege prompted other First Nations aligned with Odawa to attack British outposts in the region.[114] In the conflict, a 300-strong battalion of French Canadians, led by formerTroupes de la Marines, was raised and sent to Fort Detroit as part of Brigadier-GeneralJohn Bradstreet's expedition.[115] Despite its early success, the resistance waned when Pontiac failed to capture Fort Detroit.[102]
Peace was eventually achieved through the distribution of traditional gifts and theRoyal Proclamation of 1763. The proclamation established theProvince of Quebec and theIndian Reserve, while also granting First Nations various land rights.[102][114] These measures were implemented to protect the First Nations while facilitating the peaceful, "gradual settlement" of the frontier. However, it also made Britain an obstable for the Thirteen Colonies' territorial ambitions, a role previously held by France.[114]
After the Seven Years' War, the Thirteen Colonies became restive over taxes imposed by the British Parliament, with many questioning its necessity when they no longer needed to pay for a large military force to counter the French.[116] American frustrations intensified following the passage of theQuebec Act, which restored Catholic rights in Quebec, much to the ire of the anti-Catholic Protestant-based Thirteen Colonies. The act also expanded Quebec's territory to include portions of the Indian Reserve, such as the Ohio Country, long desired by British colonies likePennsylvania andVirginia.[117] These tensions led to apolitical revolution in the Thirteen Colonies, and eventually, the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), with American rebels aiming to break free from the British parliament, and assert their claim on the Ohio Country.[118]
At the war's start, most people in Quebec and the Maritime colonies remained neutral, hesitant to join either the Americans or the British side.[119] Early in the war, revolutionaries launched a propaganda campaign in the Canadian colonies, although it only attracted limited support. British attempts to raise a militia in Quebec also saw limited success, although they were able to rely on the French Canadian clergy, landowners, and other leading citizens for support.[117] The British received support from the Seven Nations of Canada and the Iroquois Confederacy, though the latter sought to remain neutral due to an internal civil conflict.[114]
In September 1775, American forces invaded Quebec, beginning with thecapture of Fort Ticonderoga and thesiege of Fort St. Jean near Montreal. The siege prompted GovernorGuy Carleton to abandon Montreal for Quebec City. TheContinental Army advanced towards Quebec City, where they were joined byBenedict Arnold's expedition. On New Year's Eve, theyattacked the city but were repelled.[117][120] After the failed assault, the Americans besieged Quebec until spring 1776, when they were routed by a British naval force sent to relieve Quebec. The Americans subsequently abandoned Montreal, and their remaining forces were defeated at theBattle of Trois-Rivières in June 1776. British forces, led by GeneralJohn Burgoyne, pursued the retreating Americans out of Quebec into New York in a counter-invasion.[117]
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Although theCanadien militia formed most of Quebec City's defenders during the invasion, they saw limited action beyond Quebec. British reluctance to deploy them elsewhere stemmed from uncertainty about their loyalty when faced with the French Army.[115] FiveBritish provincial corps, augmented by additional unincorporated units andLoyalistassociators, were raised in the Canadian colonies to assist in its defence and harass the American frontier.[121] First Nations allies, led byThayendanegea, also raided US border settlements from 1778 to war's end.[114]
New Englanders attempted to incite a revolt in Nova Scotia but were defeated at thebattles of Fort Cumberland in 1776 andSt. John in 1777.[117][122] Although they failed to incite a revolt, Nova Scotia remained a target of American privateering throughout the war, with most coastal outposts being attacked.[117] Attacks like the1782 raid on Lunenburg had a devastating effect on the colony's maritime economy.[123][124][125] American privateers seized 225 vessels departing from or arriving at Nova Scotian ports in total.[126] The French Navy alsoattacked a British naval convoy off Nova Scotia in July 1781.[127] Conversely, the British captured many American privateers off Nova Scotia's coast, such as in the1782 battle off Halifax. They also used the colony as a staging ground to launch attacks against New England, as seen in theBattle of Machias.[128]
The revolutionaries' failure to seize the Canadian colonies and their continued loyalty to the British fragmented Britain's North American empire.[129] Despite successfully defending Quebec and Nova Scotia, British military defeats in the Thirteen Colonies led to theirsurrender in 1781 and the subsequent recognition of the independent US republic in theTreaty of Paris of 1783.[130]
Suspicions against the US persisted in the Canadian colonies for decades. Over 75,000 Loyalists, comprising 15 per cent of residents in the Thirteen Colonies who supported the Crown, migrated north to the remaining parts ofBritish North America.[117][130][131] The British also ceded the Indian Reserve south of the Great Lakes to the newly formed United States. As the area included traditional Iroquois territory, the British offered land in Quebec to the Iroquois, hoping to establish new Iroquois communities that would serve as a barrier against the Americans.[114]
After the American Revolution, Britain maintained seven forts in the AmericanNorthwest Territory to preserve its influence over First Nations in the region. American settlers opposed this continued presence, suspecting British support for Indigenous raids in the territory. Although Britain initially urged local First Nations to pursue peace with the US, the American defeat by theNorthwestern Confederacy at the 1791Battle of the Wabash led British Army andIndian Department officials to back aproxy war and promote aFirst Nations buffer state to deter US expansion and shieldUpper Canada.[132][133]
According toIsaac Weld, some Canadians—primarily of mixed European and First Nations descent—discreetly fought alongside the Confederacy at Wabash.[133] By 1794, British soldiers and French Canadian militiamen volunteered to fight with the Confederacy atFort Recovery andFallen Timbers, disguising themselves as First Nations.[134][135] The Confederacy's defeat at Fallen Timbers revealed Britain's reluctance to intervene, prompting Confederacy members to sign theTreaty of Greenville with the US in 1795. Britain also normalized relations with the US through theJay Treaty and withdrew from the Northwest Territory.[134]
In 1796, during theWar of the First Coalition, anaval expedition underJoseph de Richery attacked Newfoundland. De Richery initially planned to attack St. John's, but abandoned the plan after his forces failed to unite with another naval squadron from Brest and were deterred by the mobilized local defence.[136] Instead, his squadron disrupted the island's fisheries and razedBay Bulls andPetty Harbour.[137]
A form of compulsory military service continued in the Canadas into the 19th century, with legislation in Lower Canada in 1803 and Upper Canada in 1808 extending the militia age range from 16 to 60.[138] However, in practice, the compulsorysedentary militia was mobilized solely during emergencies. In peacetime, service involved a one to two-day annual muster parade.[139][140]
The role of the militia during the American Revolution and War of 1812 led to the "citizen soldier" becoming a unique symbol of adulation in 19th-century Canadian military culture. This veneration stands in contrast with the United States and other British settler colonies, and led to the "militia myth" in the 19th-century Canadian zeitgeist, a belief that it did not need astanding army for its defence, as it could rely on its inhabitants to mobilize into militias overnight. This belief created a tendency to ignore the need for rigorous militia training during peacetime.[141]
Animosity and suspicion persisted between the UK and the US decades after the American Revolution.[142] TheNapoleonic Wars exacerbated Anglo-American tensions, as the UK'snaval blockade of France and theimpressment of American sailors the British claimed were deserters, aggravated the US.[143] As the US lacked a navy capable of challenging the UK, an invasion of Canada was proposed as a feasible method to attack the British.[142] Americans living in the western frontier also hoped an invasion would end British support for Indigenous resistances in the American Northwest Territory.[142] Strong support for war from congressionalwar hawks and optimistic assessments over the feasibility of invading Canada from US officers, like Major GeneralHenry Dearborn, led theUS to declare war on the UK in June 1812.[143]
US strategy focused on a vulnerable Upper Canada, as the Maritime colonies were well-defended andLower Canada deemed too remote and its capital too well-fortified.[143] At the start of the war, Upper Canada had minimal defences, consisting of only 1,600 regular troops, Britain's Indigenous allies, and severalCanadian units raised for the war, including theProvincial Marine,Fencibles, and militia units likeCaptain Runchey's Company of Coloured Men.[143][144]
Believing a bold attack was needed to galvanize the local population and First Nations to the colony's defence, Major-GeneralIsaac Brock quickly ordered a British-First Nationssiege on Fort Mackinac.[143] In August 1812, Brock's force moved towardsAmherstburg to confront an invading American army in Upper Canada, only to find that they had retreated to Detroit.[142] The American retreat facilitated Brock's alliance withShawnee chiefTecumseh and provided him with the excuse to abandon his orders to maintain a defensive posture within Upper Canada.[145] A British-First Nations forcebesieged and captured Detroit, providing them control over theMichigan Territory and the Upper Mississippi.[146][147][148]
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In October 1812, a British-First Nations force thwarted an American crossing of the Niagara River at theBattle of Queenston Heights. However, the battle resulted in the death of Brock.[150][151] An American army sent to retake Detroit wasdefeated in January 1813, ending the threat of an American offensive into Canada that winter.[143] Despite the success of Brock's offensives, his death prompted the British to adopt a defensive stance. Governor GeneralGeorge Prevost prioritized conserving his forces, concentrating the strongest garrisons in Lower Canada. Conversely, Upper Canada was only reinforced when additional troops arrived from overseas.[143]
In April 1813, an American naval squadron defeated the British at theBattle of York, briefly occupying and burning parts of the Upper Canadian capital. They thencaptured Fort George on May 27. However, the retreating British regrouped and defeated American forces at thebattles of Stoney Creek andBeaver Dams. The Americans retreated across the Niagara River in December after settingFort George andNiagara ablaze. In retaliation, the British razed parts of Buffalo during theBattle of Buffalo and continued similar reprisals into 1814, likein Washington.[143][152]
Although the British successfully defended the Niagara Peninsula in 1813, they faced significant setbacks in the western frontier. The British-First Nations forcefailed to capture Fort Meigs, and the British lost control of the Upper Great Lakes after theBattle of Lake Erie.[143] After the naval defeat, British-First Nations forces in the American Northwest Territory were forced to retreat, but were pursued and ultimately routed at theBattle of Moraviantown.[153] Tecumseh's death at the battle fracturedhis confederacy and the alliance with the British.[154]
In late 1813, there were two American invasion attempts against Lower Canada. One was repelled by a British-First Nations force at theBattle of the Chateauguay in October, while the other was turned back by a British force at theBattle of Crysler's Farm in November.[143][155]
The final incursions into the Canadas took place in 1814. US forces crossed the Niagara River in July andcaptured Fort Erie. The American advance led to theBattle of Lundy's Lane. While the battle ended in a stalemate, the exhausted Americans were compelled to retreat to Fort Erie. The Americans successfully defended Fort Erie against aBritish siege, but withdrew to the US shortly after.[143]
In 1814, the British regained the initiative, securing control of Lake Huron afterseveral engagements and establishing effectivecontrol over Lake Ontario withHMS St Lawrence, afirst-rate warship that deterred American naval actions from its launch in September to war's end.[143][156] In the Atlantic, British naval efforts were supported by Nova Scotian privateer ships raiding US shipping.[157] The most notable Nova Scotian privateer ship, theLiverpool Packet, captured 50 ships by war's end.[158]
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The end of theWar of the Sixth Coalition led the British to shift their focus to their war with the US, with Lower Canada and Nova Scotia served as staging areas for the British. The British force gathered in Lower Canada invaded northern New York but was repelled at theBattle of Plattsburgh in September. The force gathered in Halifax had greater success,capturing most of Maine's coastline by mid-September.[143]
TheTreaty of Ghent, signed on 24 December 1814, ended the conflict and restored the territorial status quo. However, fighting persisted into 1815 in areas unaware of the peace. The war fostered a sense of community in Canadian colonies and set the stage for Canada's future nationhood.[143] No side of the war can claim total victory, as neither fully achieved their war aims.[159] However,historians commonly regard the First Nations as the "losers" of the conflict, given the collapse of the Tecumseh's confederacy in 1813 and the British dropping their proposal for a First Nations buffer state in themidwestern US during peace negotiations.[160]
In 1812, theRed River Colony was established by the HBC despite protest from theNorth West Company (NWC), who already operated the nearby trading post,Fort Gibraltar. In January 1814, the colony issued thePemmican Proclamation, banning the export of pemmican and other provisions for a year to secure its growth. The NWC and localMétisvoyageurs that traded with them opposed the ban, viewing it as a move by the HBC to control NWC traders' food supply.[161]
In June 1815, Métis leader and NWC clerkCuthbert Grant led a group to harass and steal supplies from the Red River settlement. In response, the HBC seized Fort Gibraltar in March 1816 to curb the pemmican trade. This led to theBattle of Seven Oaks in June 1816, where HBC officials confronted Métis and First Nations voyageurs. After the confrontation, Grant briefly controlled the area as Red River settlers withdrew toNorway House. HBC authority was restored in August whenThomas Douglas, 5th Earl of Selkirk, arrived with 90 soldiers.[161]
Fear of an American invasion of the Canadas persisted for at least the next half-century, prompting the retention of a sizable British garrison in the colonies.[162] From the 1820s to the 1840s, the British built up several fortifications to serve as strong defensive points against potential invasions, including thecitadel and ramparts in Quebec City,Fort Henry inKingston, and theImperial fortress ofHalifax.[162] TheRideau Canal was built to provide a northern waterway from Montreal to Kingston during wartime,[163] bypassing the St. Lawrence River, a waterway that was also theCanada–US border.[163]
By the 1850s, fears of an American invasion had waned, prompting the British to downsize their garrison. TheCanadian-American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 further alleviated concerns.[164]
TheBritish Army levied and recruited from the local population to form new units or to replace individuals lost to enemy action, sickness, or desertion, with levies taking place during the War of 1812 and the Rebellions of 1837–1838.[165] British Army units raised in Canadian colonies during this period include the100th (Prince of Wales's Royal Canadian) Regiment of Foot and theRoyal Canadian Rifle Regiment.[166][167]
Several Canadians served in the British military during theCrimean War, with theWelsford-Parker Monument in Halifax the sole Crimean War monument in North America.[168]Alexander Roberts Dunn, the first Canadian recipient of theVictoria Cross, earned the medal for his actions during theCharge of the Light Brigade.[169] During theIndian Rebellion of 1857,William Nelson Hall became the firstBlack Nova Scotian to receive the medal, having been awarded it for his actions at theSiege of Lucknow.[170][171]
Armed uprisings broke out from 1837 to 1838 in the Canadas.[172] Calls forresponsible government and an economic depression inLower Canada led to protests and, subsequently, an armed insurrection led by the radicalPatriote movement. Revolts in Lower Canada erupted in November 1837, and was the more significant and violent insurgency in the Canadas.[173] Another armed uprising occurred in Upper Canada shortly thereafter, its leaders inspired by the events in Lower Canada.[174]
The rebellions led to theDurham Report, which recommended uniting the Canadas and introducing responsible government. This former was realized when theProvince of Canada was formed through theAct of Union 1840, and responsible government was introduced in 1848.[174]
The first uprising in Lower Canada began in November 1837. British regulars and Canadian militia fought Patriote rebels in a series of skirmishes, including thebattles of Saint-Denis,Saint-Charles, andSaint-Eustache.[175] The disorganized rebels were defeated, with their leadership escaping to the US. Following this, anglophone militias pillaged and burned French Canadian settlements.[174]
A second uprising in Lower Canada commenced in November 1838 with aid from American volunteers, but it was poorly organized and quickly put down. The two rebellions resulted in 325 deaths, predominantly among the rebels, while the British recorded 27 fatalities.[174]
Events in Lower Canada emboldenedWilliam Lyon Mackenzie to rally radical followers to draft a republican constitution and seize control of the government, sparking theUpper Canada Rebellion.[176] Rebels, largely made up of disaffected American-born farmers who opposed the preferential treatment of British settlers in the colony's land grant system, converged atMontgomery's Tavern in Toronto on December 5, 1837.[177] Most rebels dispersed after encountering apicket of 20 Loyalists, though a small faction stayed until Loyalist andBlack Loyalist militias arrived three days later.[174] Days later, Mackenzie's followers occupiedNavy Island and declared theRepublic of Canada. They remained on the island until January 1838, when they were forced to flee to the US after the Canadian militiadestroyed their supply ship, theCaroline in US waters.[174][178]
From 1838, rebels who had fled to the US conductedcross-border raids against Upper Canada, with support from theHunters' Lodges, US-based secret societies aiming to overthrow British rule in Canada. While unsuccessful, these raids led the US to deploy military forces along its northern border to upholdAmerican neutrality.[178][179] The raids ended after the rebels' defeat at theBattle of the Windmill. British records report 13 British and Canadian soldiers killed, while Patriot casualties range from 17 to 50.[178]
The influx of goldprospectors into theFraser Canyon during theFraser Gold Rush led to several conflicts between prospectors and local First Nations. TheFraser Canyon War in 1858 saw theNlaka'pamux and prospectors clash at the start of the gold rush. The Nlaka'pamux attacked several newly arrived American prospectors in defence of their territory, prompting the prospectors to form military companies to carry out reprisals. Responding to the violence, the British formed thecolony of British Columbia on August 2 and sent gunboats to theFraser River to reestablish order. However, as British military capabilities in the region were limited, they were unable to quickly assert control, leading to open conflict on August 9. A truce was brokered on 21 August, and the arrival of a British contingent by month's end stabilized the area. Around 36 Nlakaʼpamux, including five chiefs, died during the conflict.[180]
TheChilcotin War was another conflict that broke out in the area in April 1864, when the Tsilhqot'in killed 21 prospectors and construction workers who crossed into their territory. The attacks sparked a month-long armed standoff in theBritish Columbia Interior, after a group predominantly made up of American prospectors marched from the colonial capital ofNew Westminster to quell the resistance in the Crown's name. The conflict ended with the mistaken arrest of a Tsilhqot'in peace delegation. Six delegates were convicted and hanged for murder, despite the Tsilhqot'in maintaining its actions were an act of war rather than murder. In 2018, the Canadian government exonerated the six individuals and issued an apology to the Tsilhqot'in, recognizing "that they acted in accordance with their laws and traditions" for war.[181]
At the start of theAmerican Civil War (1861–1865), the British Empire declared neutrality, although its colonies in British North America sold weapons to both sides of the war. Although some Canadian newspapers sympathized with theConfederate States of America due to its alignment with colonial "security interests," the vast majority of the 40,000 Canadians who volunteered to fight in the Civil War did so with theUnion Army.[182][183] Most Canadians fought as volunteers, although some were coerced into service by American recruiters or "crimpers". By the war's end, 29 Canadian Union Army officers were awarded theMedal of Honor.[183]
Incidents like theTrent and theChesapeake affairs strained Anglo-American relations.[184] TheTrent Affair, the most serious incident of the war, occurred in 1861 when a US gunboat stopped theRMSTrent to seize two Confederate officials en route to the UK.[185] The British demanded an apology and the release of the passengers. War appeared imminent in the months after, with the British reinforcing its North American garrison from 4,000 to 18,000 soldiers.[185] However, the crisis abated after an apology was issued.[183] The presence of both Uniondraft dodgers and Confederate operatives in Canada further inflamed tensions between the United States and the British Empire.[186]
When the Union Army regained the initiative in 1863, Confederate agent,Jacob Thompson, was tasked with creating a northern front from Canada. With Confederate activities tolerated by Canadian authorities and citizens,[187] Thompson set up bases in Montreal and Toronto. His plans included raiding prison camps to free Confederate prisoners and attacking Union ships in the Great Lakes. In 1864, Confederate raiders from Montrealraided St. Albans in Vermont, but they were defeated and were subsequently arrested at the border by British soldiers.[183]
In the mid-1860s,Irish American veterans of the Union Army who were members of theFenian Brotherhood, supported raiding British North America to forceIrish independence.[188][189][190][191] The Fenians incorrectly assumed thatIrish Canadians would support their invasion. However, the majority of Irish settlers inCanada West were Protestant, mainly ofAnglo-Irish orUlster-Scot descent, and largely loyal to the Crown.[188] Nonetheless, the threat prompted British and Canadian agents in the US to redirect their focus from Confederate sympathizers to the Fenians in 1865. Upon learning of the Fenians' planned attack, 10,000 volunteers of the Canadian militia were mobilized in 1866, a number that later increased to 14,000, and then to 20,000.[192]
The first raid took place in April 1866, as Fenians landed onCampobello Island and razed several buildings. The largest raid occurred on June 2 at theBattle of Ridgeway, where 750–800 Fenians repelled nearly 900 Canadian militiamen, largely due to the latter's inexperience. However, the Fenians withdrew to the US shortly after, anticipating additional British and Canadian reinforcements. In the same month, another party of 200 Fenians was defeated nearPigeon Hill.[192]
The threat of raids in 1870 led the government to mobilize 13,000 volunteers. Fenian raiding parties were defeated at thebattles of Eccles Hill andTrout River in May 1870. In October 1871, 40 Fenians occupied a customs house near the Manitoba-Minnesota border, hoping to elicit support fromLouis Riel and the Métis, but Riel raised volunteers to repel them. The US Army later intervened and arrested the Fenians, with the US not wanting to risk war with the UK.[192][193]
While the militia prevented the Fenian from accomplishing its goals, the raids exposed deficiencies in its leadership, structure, and training, prompting subsequent reforms within it.[192]
By the mid-1860s, British North American colonies faced mounting pressure to assume their own defences as the UK sought to alleviate themselves of the cost of defending them and to redeploy troops to more strategic areas. British pressure and the American Civil War prompted various colonies to consider forming a single federation. Although some questioned the need to unite post-American Civil War, subsequent raids by Fenians made more people in British North America favourable toCanadian Confederation, which was eventually realized in 1867.[183][194]
In 1869, the USsent demands to the UK seeking damages for British transgressions during the American Civil War. A British delegation, including Canadian Prime MinisterJohn A. Macdonald, negotiated theTreaty of Washington in 1871 to settle the issue.[183] After these grievances were settled and most British North American colonies had joined Canadian Confederation, the British withdrew from the Canada in 1871, except for Halifax and Esquimalt, where garrisons of thePacific andNorth America and West Indies stations remained for reasons of imperial strategy.[195] The Royal Navy continued to provide for Canada's maritime defence, with the understanding that they would provide additional aid in emergencies.[196]
Canadian enlistment in the British military continued after Confederation and the British Army's withdrawal in 1871. Several Canadians opted for British service over the Canadian militia, as the latter showed little interest inexpeditionary combat.[197] The British Army specifically targeted Canadians for recruitment to replenish certain units, like the 100th Regiment of Foot.[165] Canadians continued joining the British Army'senlisted ranks into the First World War, with several thousand Canadians serving in British units during the conflict.[198]
The BritishWar Office also reserved officer commissions for Canadian "gentlemen and journeymen" to fill vacancies and bolster the British officer corps.[199] The recruitment of Canadians into the British officer corps was encouraged by the War Office as a way to promote military interoperability between Canada and the UK, and to make the Canadian government more amicable to the idea of its military participating in British overseas campaigns.[200] By 1892, about two-thirds ofRoyal Military College of Canada (RMC) graduates who received commissions opted to join the British military rather than the Canadian militia.[201]
By 1900, RMC graduates in the British military had participated in 27 campaigns across Africa, Burma, India, and China.[202] From 1880 and 1918, around a quarter of RMC graduates accepted commissions in the British military.[198] Recruitment of RMC officer cadets into the British military declined in the early 20th century due to efforts byFrederick William Borden, the Canadianminister of militia and defence. As a result, from 1911 to 1914, over half of all graduates pursuing military careers joined the Canadian militia rather than the British military.[199]
By the mid-19th century, the militia system in the Province of Canada was organized into two classes, sedentary andActive.[203] The sedentary militia, later called the "Reserve Militia," was the traditional compulsory militia mobilized solely during emergencies.[139][140] The Active Militia consisted initially of volunteer service battalions tasked with transport and operational duties.[203]
The Active Militia began as an unpaid voluntary service but evolved into a paid part-time service under theMilitia Act of 1855, comprising the Volunteer Militia, the Regular Militia, and the Marine Militia. The Volunteer Militia included artillery, cavalry, and infantry units. The Regular Militia comprised former serving men eligible for emergency service through balloting. The Marine Militia consisted of individuals employed to navigate Canada's waterways.[139] In 1862, proposed legislation to enhance the sedentary militia ignited a debate over whether the colony should rely on a compulsory or voluntary service. Following the 1863 general election, a new Militia Act was passed, shifting the burden of defence to the Active Militia while also preserving the sedentary militia.[203][138] The militia system was adopted into the Canadian federation through the 1868 Militia Act.[138] After the British Army's departure in 1871, the Canadian militia shouldered the main responsibility for its defence.[139]
The Active Militia underwent professionalization in the 1870s and 1880s, with the establishment of two professional artillery batteries in 1871.[204] The Active Militia expanded under the 1883 Militia Act, authorizing a new cavalry troop, an additional artillery battery, and three infantry companies.[139] These were intended to provide the professional backbone of thePermanent Force, a full-time "continuous service" component of the Active Militia.[139][204][205] While the Active Militia's professional elements grew in the 1870s and 1880s, its marine component dwindled, with the last marine militia unit disbanded in 1878.[139] The sedentary militia also fell into disuse during this period as annual musters became less frequent. By 1883, the sedentary militia was nearly non-existent, with the requirement for annual musters stricken from legislation.[138]
As American hunters drovebison to near extinction, conflict erupted between theBlackfoot Confederacy and theCree as both groups vied for control of the dwindling food source in the 1860s. The conflict culminated in theBattle of the Belly River in October 1870.[206] A Cree war party engaged aPiikani Nation camp but was defeated, unaware that members of theKainai Nation andPiegan Blackfeet were also there. The Blackfoot's use ofrevolving rifles likely aided in their victory.[207] However their victory waspyrrhic, as their losses made them vulnerable to attack. Both sides lost as many as 300 warriors in the battle.[208] Both sides, hoping to prevent another bloody battle like the one at Belly River agreed to peace in 1871.[206]
In the late 19th century, Louis Riel led tworesistances against the Canadian government amid its efforts to settlewestern Canada and negotiateland transfer treaties with First Nations.
The first resistance led by Riel, the Red River Rebellion (1869–1870), occurred before thetransfer of Rupert's Land from the HBC to Canada. In December 1869, Riel and Métis settlers of the Red River Colony seizedUpper Fort Garry to negotiate favourable terms for the colony's entry into Canadian confederation.[209] After an English-speaking settler was executed, amilitary expedition made up of 400 British regulars and 800 Canadian militiamen set out to retake the fort.[209][210] Riel and his followers fled to the US before the expedition's arrival in August 1870. Although they fled, the resistance achieved its major objectives, with the federal government recognizing the rights of the Red River settlers through the establishment of the province ofManitoba.[209]
In 1884, Riel returned from the US and rallied local Métis in theNorth-West Territories to press their grievances against the Canadian government. In March 1885, a Métis armed force established theProvisional Government of Saskatchewan, with Riel as president. A three-month insurgency, called the North-West Rebellion, began later that month when Métis forces defeated aNorth-West Mounted Police (NWMP) contingent atDuck Lake. The battle emboldened thePlains Cree underBig Bear, leading to attacks onBattleford,Frog Lake, andFort Pitt.[211][212]
In response, the Canadian government mobilized 3,000 militiamen to quell the resistance.[213] GeneralFrederick Middleton initially planned for the 3,000-person force to travel together by rail, but attacks at Battleford and Frog Lake forced him to send a 900-person force ahead of the main contingent. However, after the forward force was repelled at theBattle of Fish Creek, Middleton chose to wait for the rest of the contingent before successfully besieging Riel's outnumbered forces at theBattle of Batoche.[212][214] Although Riel was captured at Batoche in May, resistance from Big Bear's followers persisted until 3 June at theBattle of Loon Lake.[212] Canadian militia and NWMP casualties during the conflict include 58 killed and 93 wounded.[215]
In 1884, during theMahdist War, British GeneralGarnet Wolseley, drawing on his favourable experience with Canadianvoyageurs during the Red River Rebellion, requested skilled Canadian boatmen to navigate his expedition down theNile to relieve Major-GeneralCharles Gordon'sbesieged forces in Khartoum.[216] Though initially hesitant, the Canadian government provided Wolseley with a volunteer force of 386 voyaguers and Canadian militia officers after the British agreed to pay for their deployment.[217] Known as the Nile Voyageurs, the contingent became the first Canadian force to serve outside North America.[218]
Arriving in Asyut in October 1884, the voyageurs transported 5,000 British troops upstream to Khartoum using wooden whaling boats. They arrived two days after the city's capture by Mahdist forces. Canadian militia officers overseeing the voyageurs took part in theBattle of Kirbekan weeks later, although the voyageurs themselves did not partake. After Kirbekan, the expedition withdrew to Egypt, departing in April 1885.[219] Sixteen members of the Canadian contingent died during the campaign.[218]
The issue of Canadian military participation in British imperial campaigns arose again when the British requested Canadian assistance in the Second Boer War (1899–1902).[220][221] Most ofEnglish Canada supported participation, while near-universal opposition came from French Canadians and other groups.[222] This split the governingLiberal Party led by Prime MinisterWilfrid Laurier, whose political base comprised both pro-imperial Anglo-Canadians and anti-imperial Franco-Canadians.[223]
Laurier aimed for a compromise to preserve Anglo-French relations,[223] but faced pressure from his imperial-minded cabinet to send a token force of 1,000 soldiers from theRoyal Canadian Regiment of Infantry.[223][224] Two additional contingents followed, one comprising 6,000 volunteers from theRoyal Canadian Dragoons andCanadian Mounted Rifles, and the third,Strathcona's Horse, was financed byThe Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal.[225] Many Canadians also served in the British Army'sSouth African Constabulary.[226]
Canadian forces arrived in South Africa after the initial phase of the conflict, which included British setbacks duringBlack Week. They earned praise for leading the final night attack that led to the Boers surrender at theBattle of Paardeberg.[226][227] At theBattle of Leliefontein in November 1900, three members of the Royal Canadian Dragoons were awarded the Victoria Cross for protecting the rear of a retreating force,[228] marking the only occasion when a Canadian unit received three Victoria Crosses in a single action.[229] One of the last major battles involving Canadian units was theBattle of Hart's River in March 1902.[226] During the conflict, Canadian forces played a role in maintainingBritish-run concentration camps.[230]
Around 8,600 Canadians volunteered for service during the Boer War.[231] About 7,400 Canadians,[232] including 12nursing sisters, served in South Africa.[226][233] Of these, 224 died, 252 were wounded, and five were awarded the Victoria Cross.[226][234] A wave of celebrations swept the country after the war, marked by many towns erecting their firstwar memorials. However, the public debate over Canada's role in the conflict strained relations between English and French Canada.[226]
Discussions about reforming the Canadian Militia into a fully professional army arose during the Second Boer War.[235]Lord Dundonald, the final British ArmyGeneral Officer Commanding the Canadian Militia, implemented reforms that granted Canada its own technical and support branches.[236] This included theEngineer Corps (1903),Signalling Corps (1903),Service Corps (1903),Ordnance Stores Corps (1903),Corps of Guides (1903),Medical Corps (1904),Staff Clerks (1905), andArmy Pay Corps (1906).[237] Additional corps would be created in the years before and during the First World War, including the first separatemilitary dental corps.[238]
At the turn of the century, Canada asserted greater control over its defences with the passage of a new Militia Act in 1904, appointing a CanadianChief of the General Staff.[139] Additionally, control of the Imperial fortress of Halifax andEsquimalt Royal Navy Dockyard was transferred to Canada by the British military in 1906.[239] The Militia Act of 1904 also formally acknowledged the obsolescence of the sedentary Reserve Militia by removing the provision that designated male inhabitants of military age as members, replacing it with a provision theoretically making them "liable to serve in the militia".[138]
Canada initially maintained a small fishing protection force under theDepartment of Marine and Fisheries but depended on the UK for maritime defence. However, as the British engaged in anaval arms race with Germany, it looked to its dominions to assist with Imperial naval strategy in 1908.[240] The Conservative Party advocated for Canada to contribute funds solely for the purchase and maintenance of Royal Navy vessels.[240] Some French Canadian nationalists opposed sending any aid, while others proposed establishing an independent Canadian navy capable of assisting the British when necessary.[240]
Prime Minister Laurier adopted a compromised position, leading to the creation of the Canadian Naval Service in 1910, later designated as theRoyal Canadian Navy (RCN) in August 1911.[241] To appease imperialists, theNaval Service Act included a provision allowing the RCN to be transferred to the British in emergency cases.[242] The bill aimed to build a fleet of fivecruisers and sixdestroyers.[243] The first two ships,Niobe andRainbow, were somewhat outdated vessels purchased from the British.[244] However, theelection of a Conservative government in 1911 led to a reduction in funding, although later increased during the First World War.[245]
On August 5, 1914, the British Empire, including Canada, entered theFirst World War (1914–1918) as a part of theEntente powers.[246][247] As a dominion of the Empire, Canada had control over its contributions to the war effort.[246] During the war, Canadian military spending rose considerably, with its financing being supported by the introduction of income taxes andVictory Loan campaigns. Canada also sold munitions to Britain after itexperienced a shell shortage, prompting the establishment of theImperial Munitions Board.[247]
A total of 619,636 people served in the Canadian military during the war. Of those, 59,544 were killed and 154,361 were wounded.[247][235] The conflict provided Canada with a greater degree of autonomy within the British Empire and a modest diplomatic presence at theParis Peace Conference.[247]
The Canadian Militia was not mobilized. Instead, an separateCanadian Expeditionary Force (CEF) was raised for the conflict.[248] The CEF comprised infantry battalions and theCanadian Cavalry Brigade, with recruitment handled by the militia. Canada also established theCanadian Forestry Corps to harvest wood from France and Scotland for the war effort.[247]
The first Canadian contingent departed for Europe on October 3, 1914.[247] The CEF's first large engagement was theSecond Battle of Ypres from April–May 1915. At Ypres, Canadian soldiers withstood the first large-scale use ofpoison gas in history.[249] In September 1915, after Ypres, theCanadian Corps was formed with the arrival of the2nd Canadian Division in France, consolidating the CEF.[250] The corps expanded with the3rd Canadian Division joining in December 1915, followed by the4th Canadian Division in August 1916.[250] The5th Canadian Division, formed in February 1917, never fully formed and was disbanded in February 1918.[250]
In early 1916, Canadian divisions participated in local actions like theActions of St Eloi Craters and theBattle of Mont Sorrel. The BritishSomme Offensive began on July 1, whereon its first day, theRoyal Newfoundland Regiment was annihilated. Canadian divisions were deployed to the Somme in August 1916.[247] After the Somme Offensive, Canadian leaders advocated for the corps to operate as a unified force rather than being dispersed among different British units.[250] The Canadian Corps, comprising four divisions, was consolidated for theBattle of Vimy Ridge, a crucial phase of theBattle of Arras.[247]
After Vimy Ridge, Canadian Lieutenant-GeneralArthur Currie assumed command of the corps. Under his leadership, the corps fought in theBattle of Hill 70 and theBattle of Passchendaele in 1917.[247] In 1918, the corps was sent toAmiens to bolster the lines during theHundred Days Offensive. Throughout the war's later stages, the corps earned a reputation as one of the most capable and esteemed formations on theWestern Front.[235] Throughout this period, the Canadian Corps participated in key battles such asAmiens and theCambrai.[247] The Canadian Corps' rapid advance from Amiens in August toMons by thearmistice on November 11th, is known asCanada's Hundred Days.[251][252]
During the war, the RCN primarily conducted coastal submarine patrols as part of theAtlantic U-boat campaign.[247] Canada suffered from several maritime disasters during the war. TheHalifax Explosion occurred on December 6, 1917, when aship collision involving a munition ship loaded with explosives caused one of the largest human-made explosions before thedetonation of the first atomic bomb. The disaster saw 11,000 casualties, including 2,000 dead, and the entire north end of the city destroyed.[253] The sinking ofHMHS Llandovery Castle by a U-boat in June 1918 marks the deadliest Canadiannaval disaster of the war.[254]
Besides the Canadian military, Canadians served in British forces such as the Royal Navy and theRoyal Flying Corps. By war's end, nearly a quarter of all Royal Flying Corps pilots were Canadian, including the Empire's leadingflying ace,Billy Bishop.[247]
Although enthusiasm to enlist was strong in 1914, by 1916, enthusiasm had waned.[247] At the 1917Imperial War Cabinet, Britain urged its dominions to alleviate manpower shortages caused by thecollapse of the Russian Empire and theFrench Army mutinies.[247] To maintain Canada's contributions, Prime MinisterRobert Borden advocated forconscription in the1917 federal election, sparking anational debate and crisis.[255][256] The debate highlighted divisions between English and French Canada,[257] with English Canada largely supporting it, while French Canadians, some English-speaking farmers, trade union leaders, pacifists, and Indigenous leaders opposing it.[247][258]
Borden'sUnionist Party, a coalition of pro-conscription Conservatives and Liberals, won the election and passed theMilitary Service Act, 1917, although it included various exemption provisions.[247][259] After conscription was implemented in 1918, over 400,000 were called up, but 380,510 appealed for exemption. Ultimately, only 24,132 conscripts were sent to Europe.[247]
The war's impact led to the construction of war memorials in Canada. TheCanadian National War Memorial was unveiled in 1939 and has since been used to honour Canadian war dead for other conflicts.[260] There are also eight memorials in France and Belgium to honour Canada's war dead from the war, like theCanadian National Vimy Memorial.[261]
Distinct memorials honour the contributions of Newfoundland soldiers, then aseparate British dominion. The largest Newfoundland memorials include theBeaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial in France and theNewfoundland National War Memorial in St. John's.[262]
After the First World War, the Canadian Expeditionary Force dissolved, and its lineage perpetuated through the Canadian militia. In 1921, the Active Militia was restructured, forming the Permanent Active Militia from Permanent Force, and theNon-Permanent Active Militia from itsreserve component. TheNational Defence Act of 1922 consolidated theDepartment of Militia and Defence with Air and Naval Services under theDepartment of National Defence.[139]
The greater degree of autonomy Canada saw after the First World War, coupled with public reluctance to participate in further imperial conflicts, led the Canadian government to refuse a British request for military aid during the 1922Chanak Crisis.[247][263]
The Canadian government sent around 6,000 soldiers to aid the Allied intervention in theRussian Civil War in mid-1918 in response to a British request for assistance.[264][265] Around 4,200 soldiers of theCanadian Siberian Expeditionary Force (CSEF) were deployed toVladivostok, while another Canadian contingent joined the AlliedNorth Russian Expeditionary Force innorthwest Russia.[266] Canadian soldiers were deployed to northwest Russia in May 1918,[267] while CSEF was deployed to Vladivastok in October.[268][266]
Shortly after the end of the First World War, theKing's Privy Council for Canada debated the continued military presence in Russia. A decision was made to extend the commitment until spring 1919, although they limited the use of its forces, requiring their explicit consent for their use.[266]
Although some Canadians died in combat as pilots over the Black Sea,[264] the majority of Canadian soldiers stationed in Russia experienced minimal combat before their withdrawal.[269] CSEF soldiers began their withdrawal from Russia in April 1919.[266] The 16th Canadian Field Artillery Brigade withdrew from northwest Russia in June 1919.[270] In total, 21 Canadians died in the Russia intervention, the majority from disease or accidents.[266]
The First World War spurred the formation of Canada's air force. Initially, Canada lacked an independent air force, although in 1914, the Canadian government authorized the formation of theCanadian Aviation Corps to accompany the Canadian Expeditionary Force to Europe with one aircraft, aBurgess-Dunne.[271][272] However, the corps was disbanded in 1915.[273] Canadians military aviators served with the British Royal Flying Corps and theRoyal Naval Air Service during the war.[274]
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In 1918, the British Air Ministry established a Canadian bomber and fighter squadron in Europe, marking a second attempt at forming a Canadian air force. The Canadian government later assumed control of these two squadrons, forming theCanadian Air Force.[275] This air force, however, never saw service and was completely disbanded by 1921.[275]
During the 1920s, the British government urged Canada to establish a peacetime air force, offering surplus aircraft. In 1920, the Canadian Air Force (CAF) was created under theAir Board, serving as a part-time or militia service for flying refresher training.[276] After a reorganization the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. TheRoyal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) took over civil flying responsibilities from the Air Board and CAF after its creation in April 1924.[271] The Second World War saw the RCAF become a true military service.[271]
Canada did not participate in theSpanish Civil War (1936–1939), although over 1,500 Canadians volunteered to fight for the SpanishRepublican faction. Most volunteers were recent immigrants,Communist Party members, and formerrelief camp workers.[277]
Canadian volunteers initially joined theBritish Battalion, although 40 Canadians also joined theLincoln and theGeorge Washington battalions.[277][278] In July 1937, the primarily CanadianMackenzie–Papineau Battalion was mustered into theXV International Brigade.[277][279] The battalion fought in five major campaigns, including theBattle of Teruel, theAragon Offensive, and theBattle of the Ebro.[277][280] Between 400 and 721 Canadian volunteers died in the war.[277][281]
TheSecond World War (1939–1945) began on September 1, 1939, withNazi Germany'sinvasion of Poland. Canada issued adeclaration of war against Germany on September 10.[282] Although Canada was a significant contributor to the war, it played no major role in its strategic planning, as Prime MinisterWilliam Lyon Mackenzie King refrained from involvement.[283]
Thefall of Belgium andFrance to Germany in June 1940 led Canada to drastically expand its military spending and armed forces, and implement conscription for home defence.[283] Like the First World War, conscription for overseas service was a divisive issue, with some English Canadians supporting it and French Canadians opposing it.[284] TheConscription Crisis of 1944 saw Mackenzie King pressured to accept conscription for overseas service.[283]
Hostilities ceased in September 1945.[283] Around 1.1 million Canadians served in the military during the war, with over 45,000 casualties and 55,000 wounded.[285]
The Canadian Militia (renamed theCanadian Army in November 1940)[286] saw minimal action early in the war, with the1st Canadian Division only briefly deploying alongside theSecond British Expeditionary Force during the fall of France in June 1940.[287] After the Britishwithdrawal from Dunkirk, the 1st Canadian Division was one of few fully intact formations left in the UK in terms of equipment and manpower. By late 1940, multiple Canadian units were stationed in the UK to defend against apotential German invasion.[288][289]
In December 1941,two Canadian battalions participated in theBattle of Hong Kong,[290] while the 2nd Canadian Division led theDieppe Raid in August 1942.[291] TheFirst Canadian Army was also formed in 1942, to prepare for the invasion of northwest Europe.[292]
In July 1943, the 1st and 5th Canadian Divisions took part in theAllied invasion of Sicily as part of theBritish Eighth Army.[293] They also participated in theAllied invasion of Italy, facing intense combat in theBattle of Ortona and theMoro River Campaign.[294] In spring 1944, Canadian units under Lieutenant-GeneralE. L. M. Burns played a leading role in breaking through theHitler Line, and later breached theGothic Line after theBattle of Rimini. In total, 92,757 Canadian soldiers served in theItalian campaign, with 5,764 casualties.[283]
On June 6, 1944, during theNormandy landings, the 3rd Canadian Division and the2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade securedJuno Beach,[295] supported by earlier landings ofCanadian airborne troops behind the beaches.[296] The Canadians led the breakout from the Normandy bridgehead, notably at theFalaise pocket. Afterwards, the First Canadian Army conducted campaigns to clear coastal fortress, likeOperation Astonia.[283] From October to November, the Canadiansfought a series of battles to secure theScheldt and openAntwerp to Allied shipping.[297]
In early 1945, Canadian units fought in theSiegfried Line campaign, clearing a path to theRhine and enabling Allied offensives further beyond the river.[298] After the campaign, the First Canadian Army participated in theliberation of the Netherlands and theWestern Allied invasion of Germany.[299] Around 237,000 Canadian soldiers served inNorth West Europe campaign in 1944 and 1945, among whom 11,336 died.[283]
The RCN expanded significantly during the war, with 99,688 servicemen, around 6,500 servicewomen, and 471 combat ships by war's end.[283] The navy protected supply and troop convoys fromU-boatwolfpacks during theBattle of the Atlantic.[300] After the Atlantic Convoy Conference in 1943, all Allied convoys north of New York City were coordinated through theCanadian Northwest Atlantic Command. RCN warships sank 33 enemy U-boats during the war.[283]
In addition to the Atlantic campaign, the RCN participated in theDunkirk evacuation, theAllied landing in North Africa, and the Normandy landings.[283][301] The light cruiserHMCS Uganda also participated in thePacific War as a part of theBritish Pacific Fleet.[302] The navy lost 24 warships during the war, the largest being the destroyerHMCS Athabaskan.[283] In addition to the RCN, Canadians also served with theCanadian Merchant Navy.[303]
The RCAF also contributed to the war effort, although its manpower was initially hindered by theBritish Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP), which trained aircrews for the UK, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.[283] While Canada hosted most BCATP facilities and funded three-quarters of the costs, the British expected graduates to join theRoyal Air Force (RAF). However, intervention from Mackenzie King allowed some Canadian graduates to join the RCAF instead.[304] As a result of the earlier arrangement, many Canadian BCATP graduates served in RAF units likeNo. 242 (Canadian) Squadron RAF, instead of RCAF units.[289][283] At its peak, BCATP included 107 schools and 184 ancillary units across Canada. By the end of 1945, 131,553 pilots graduated from BCATP in Canada, serving with the RAF, RCAF, or other Allied air forces.[304]
Although the BCATP initially delayed the RCAF's deployment overseas, by war's end, 48 RCAF squadrons were stationed abroad. They participated in campaigns like theBattle of Britain and theCombined Bomber Offensive.[305][283] By the war's end, Canadian airmen served in every major theatre, includingNorth Africa, Italy, northwest Europe, and the Pacific.[306] Canadian airmen in Canada participated in theAleutian Islands campaign and conducted anti-submarine operations in the Atlantic. Throughout the war, 232,632 men and 17,030 women served in the RCAF, with 17,101 dead.[283] By the end of the war, the RCAF was the fourth-largest Allied air force.[307]
Canadian industries produced 815,729 units of war materials during the conflict, including small arms, warships, aircraft, and vehicles. Over half of Canada's output was sent to the UK, facilitated by theBillion Dollar Gift package. Labour shortages prompted many women to enter the workforce for the first time, filling roles left by enlisted men.[283] TheCanadian Women's Army Corps and theRCAF Women's Division were created to relieve servicemen for frontline duties.[308]
Canada also supported British and American efforts to develop anatomic bomb. In 1942, the Canadian government acquired theEldorado Mine to mine uranium,[283] and formed a nuclear research partnership with the UK, establishing theMontreal Laboratory to house the BritishTube Alloys nuclear program.[309] The British and Americans agreed to cooperate on nuclear weapons development during theFirst Quebec Conference in 1943, and the Montreal Laboratory was absorbed into theManhattan Project.[309]
Thedefection of a Soviet cipher clerk in Ottawa in September 1945 and subsequent allegations of a Soviet spy ring marked the beginning of theCold War in Canada.[310] As a foundingNATO member andNORAD signatory, Canada was aligned with theWestern Bloc against theCommunist bloc.[311] In the 1950s, Canada partnered with the US to establishearly-warning radar systems, including thePinetree Line,Mid-Canada Line, and theDEW Line, to defend against Soviet attacks.[312]
As amiddle power, Canada recognized its military constraints and embracedmultilateralism, making its military contributions dependent upon being part of a larger multilateral coalition.[313] As a result, it refrained from direct involvement in conflicts like theVietnam War, despite the involvement of close allies.[314]
At the start of theKorean War (1950–1953), Canada quickly backed the establishment of aUnited Nations military force to liberate South Korea.[315] Canadian units in Korea were integrated into the largerBritish Commonwealth Forces Korea.[316] Canada initially contributed three RCN destroyers and theNo. 426 Squadron, a RCAF military transport squadron, to support the war effort.[315][317] Eight RCN ships rotated duties in Korean waters during the war, protecting the UN fleet and supporting onshore operations.[315] In Korea, 22 RCAF fighter pilots also flew jets on exchange duty with theUnited States Air Force (USAF).[315][318]
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Having undergone rapid demilitarization after the Second World War, the Canadian Army required several months to mobilize back to wartime strength.[319] Domestic pressure for a larger commitment led the Canadian Army to form Special Force (later renamed the25th Canadian Infantry Brigade) for deployment in Korea.[315] The first Canadian Army units arrived in Korea in December 1950, following its early campaigns and the onset of the attrition phase, when the fighting had largely settled along the38th parallel.[315][320] For army units, the war was characterized as a "war of patrols" in mountainous terrain. Battles the Canadian Army fought in include the battles ofKapyong andKowang-san.[315]
Canada sent 26,791 troops to fight in Korea.[321] There were 1,558 Canadian casualties, including 516 dead.[322] Hostilities ceased with the 1953Korean Armistice Agreement.[323] Following the armistice, Canada stationed a garrison in the region to patrol theKorean Demilitarized Zone until 1955. The last Canadian soldiers underUnited Nations Command departed the region in 1957.[315]
During the Cold War, Canada deployed its military abroad for the first time during peacetime, maintaining units in Western Europe from the early 1950s to 1993. Around 100,000 Canadian military personnel served in France and West Germany as part ofCanadian Forces Europe.[324]
In adherence to NATO obligations, Canada formed the27th Canadian Infantry Brigade (27CIBG), later designated as 4 Combat Group and 4 Canadian Mechanized Brigade, for service in West Germany.[325] It initially comprised 6,700 soldiers organized into several units, including three infantry battalions, an armoured regiment, andMGR-1 Honest John nuclear missile batteries. The brigade was reorganized following a 1970 defence review, losing its nuclear capability and reducing its size. By 1977, it transitioned from a frontline role as a part of the British commitment in northern Germany to a rear area reserve force in the south.[324]
In addition to the 27CIBG, Canada contributed two infantry battalion groups to NATO'squick reaction force,Allied Command Europe Mobile Force, in 1964. However, by the late 1960s, the commitment was reduced to one battalion.[324] TheCanadian Air-Sea Transportable Brigade Group (CAST), comprising 5,000 personnel, was another unit formed in 1968 to support Canada's European commitments. Though stationed in Canada, CAST was able to deploy to Norway within 30 days. CAST only deployed once for a military exercise in 1986 before disbandment in 1989.[324]
In 1951, Canada formed the1 Air Division to fulfil NATO air defence obligations.[326] Initially aday/all-weather interception squadron, its role shifted to nuclear strike and reconnaissance in 1962, and then solely to reconnaissance in 1966. The 1 Air Division initially comprised two wings in France and two in Germany, although RCAF assets in France were relocated to Germany after theFrench withdrawal from NATO in 1966.[324]
Canada began exploring military unification in the 1930s, having unified some administrative aspects and its military colleges by the 1940s and 1950s.[327] In the 1960s, Canada pursued full military unification to reduce costs and eliminate service duplication.[328][329] In 1964, the National Defence Act was amended to create a unified command structure under a singleChief of the Defence Staff. The Canadian Forces Reorganization Act, 1968 then merged the Army, RCN, and RCAF into a singularCanadian Armed Forces (CAF), ending their existence as separate entities.[327]
The unification of Canada's military was only partly successful, with support services and headquarters commands being successfully unified, and its cost-cutting measures praised. However, changes the move to a unified ranking structure and service uniforms faced resistance from CAF personnel and the public. Due to ongoing resistance from the army, air force, and navy, many of those changes were reversed by 2014.[327]
The October Crisis was instigated by the Montreal-basedFront de libération du Québec's (FLQ) kidnapping of two government officials.[330] On October 15, 1970, five days after the second kidnapping, the Quebec government requested military aid under the National Defence Act, with soldiers deployed to strategic locations in Montreal hours later.[330][331] The following day, the federal government invoked theWar Measures Act to confront the "apprehended insurrection," marking its only peacetime use.[330][332]
Under the War Measures Act, the FLQ was banned and civil liberties were suspended. Troops were deployed to Quebec until January 1971. Ultimately, 12,500 Canadian Forces troops were stationed in Quebec, with 7,500 in Montreal.[333][334] The federal government's use of the War Measures Act sparked controversy due to the unjust detention of the majority of those arrested. This played a role in its replacement with the more restrainedEmergencies Act in 1988.[330][331]
Canada was a non-belligerent during the Vietnam War, and took part in two international truce commissions, theInternational Control Commission and theInternational Commission of Control and Supervision.[335] Canada's military involvement in the conflict was minimal, with a small contingent deployed in 1973 to enforce theParis Peace Accords.[336]
Throughout the conflict,Canada became a haven for American Vietnam War resisters, with around 20,000Vietnam draft dodgers and 12,000military deserters seeking refuge in the country.[337] However, in a countercurrent to the movement of American draft dodgers and deserters to Canada, around 12,000 Canadians and Canadian-Americandual citizens enlisted with theUnited States Armed Forces and served in combat roles in Vietnam.[338] Between 110 and 134 Canadians died during the conflict.[337][339] In 2009, seven remained listed asmissing in action.[339]
In the 1990s, the CAF participated in multinational missions responding to international crises. The CAF also provided aid within Canada afternatural disasters, deploying over 8,500 military personnel to Manitoba after the1997 Red River flood,[340] over 16,000 to aid in New Brunswick, Ontario, and Quebec after the1998 North American ice storm. The 1998 ice storm marked the largest Canadian military response to a domestic natural disaster and the largest operational deployment since the Korean War.[341][342][343]
The Oka Crisis was aland dispute between a group of Mohawk andOka, Quebec, from July 11 to September 26, 1990. Quebec PremierRobert Bourassa invoked Section 275 of the National Defence Act on August 8, requesting military support in "aid of the civil power",[344] after one police officer and two Mohawk were killed.[345]
Around 4,000 regular and reserve troops from Quebec were mobilized to support provincial authorities.[346][347] Troops and equipment were mobilized at staging areas aroundKanesatake andKahnawake, while reconnaissance aircraft conducted missions over Mohawk territory to gather intelligence.[346][345] A month after the military's deployment, the crisis ended with the departure of land defenders from the disputed grounds.[346]
Canada quickly joined theUS-led UN coalition after theIraqi invasion of Kuwait.[348] Over 5,100 CAF personnel served, with 2,700 in theatre at its peak. Operations were coordinated underOperation Friction. TheGulf War marked the first time female CAF members served in combat roles.[349]
A Canadian naval task force was sent to support the coalition, comprising destroyersHMCS Terra Nova andHMCS Athabaskan, and the supply shipHMCS Protecteur.[348] The Canadian Task Group led the coalition maritime logistics forces in the Persian Gulf.[350] Canadian warships conducted about a quarter of all inspections of vessels suspected of breaching the coalition blockade.[349] Another destroyer,HMCS Huron, arrived after hostilities ceased and was the first allied ship to visit Kuwait.[350]
The CAF also deployed aCF-18 Hornet andCH-124 Sea King squadron.[351] When theair campaign began, 24 Canadian CF-18s joined coalition forces in providing air cover and targeting ground assets, including assisting in the destruction of theIraqi Navy during theBattle of Bubiyan.[352][353] The air war in Iraq was the first offensive combat operation Canadian military personnel took part in since the Korean War.[349][352]
A 530-person military field hospital was also deployed by the CAF, attached to a larger British unit.[349] In 1991, photographs ofCanadian Military Engineers posing with dismembered bodies in a Kuwaiti minefield led to the unit being investigated.[354]
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The CAF supportedUNOSOM I in theSomali Civil War,[355] aiding in security, humanitarian relief, and ceasefire monitoring.[356] In December 1992, the first US-led, UN-sanctioned force,UNITAF, arrived in Somalia. UNITAF involved 23 countries, including Canada, which contributed around 1,400 soldiers from theCanadian Airborne Regiment and the naval support shipHMCS Preserver.[357] In May 1993 the operation came under UN command and was renamedUNOSOM II.[358] Due to resistance from certain local factions, UNOSOM II struggled to end the conflict, enforce a ceasefire, or secure cooperation from local warlords. Consequently, it focused on protecting food and medical aid distribution sites rather than restoring order.[357]
Based primarily in Beledweyne, Canadian forces rebuilt infrastructure, cleared landmines, and guarded aid convoys.[357] However, the mission became a political disaster for Canada.[359] Canadian soldiers were frequently harassed and their base often targeted by looters. In response, their commander authorized looters to be shot in the leg if they ran. Another officer later allowed thieves to be "captured and abused."[360] In March 1993, members of the airborne unit were involved in twoextrajudicial killings. The first involved a civilian who was shot while fleeing after breaking into their base for supplies, and the second involved a youth who was tortured and killed after breaking into the encampment.[357][361] Cover-up attempts by senior officials at theDepartment of National Defence sparked anational scandal in Canada. A federal inquiry into the matter saw the end of several officers' careers, court-martials, and the airborne regiment's disbandment.[357][362] The scandal damaged Canada's international reputation and was heralded as "the darkest era in the history of the Canadian military" since the Second World War.[360]
The UN mission itself failed to restore order, with mounting casualties prompting the US to withdraw its forces after theBattle of Mogadishu. This experience largely halted the use of robust multinational military forces fromwestern countries for humanitarian aid during civil conflicts.[357]
Since 1991, about 40,000 CAF personnel and civilian police, including theRoyal Canadian Mounted Police, participated in Balkanspeacekeeping missions, beginning with theEuropean Community Monitoring Mission in the Former Yugoslavia in 1991. This involvement spanned UN missions likeUNCRO in Croatia,UNMIBH in Bosnia and Herzegovina,UNMIK in Kosovo, andUNPREDEP in North Macedonia. Additionally, they contributed to NATO missions such asIFOR andSFOR in Bosnia and Herzegovina, theKosovo Force, and task forcesHarvest andFox in North Macedonia, as well as EU missions likeEUFOR Concordia andOperation Althea.[363]
In September 1993, the largest battle involving Canadian military personnel since the Korean War occurred when Canadian and French peacekeepers underUNPROFOR fought Croat forces for 15 hours.[364][365][366] The Canadian-French contingent was tasked with securing the Medak pocket, a strategic salient between Croat and Serb forces whenOperation Medak Pocket was launched by Croat forces.[364] Initially targeting Serb positions, on September 15, Croat forces besieged the Canadian-French position at Medak pocket, prompting them to respond.[364][365] The Canadian government reported 27 Croatian soldiers killed and four Canadians wounded during the exchange.[364][367]
The CAF also contributed warships to NATO'smaritime blockade of the region, and 18 CF-18 Hornets to support theNATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999.[363] During the bombing campaign, Canadian CF-18s flew 678 sorties, about 10 per cent of all NATO strike missions.[368]
During the early 21st century, Canada participated in multiple missions in support of theglobal war on terror, including the US-ledOperation Enduring Freedom. This included security operations conducted in the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman from 2001 to 2012. This deployment marked the Canadian navy's largest since World War II, with 15 warships dispatched. At its peak in January 2002, six Canadian warships and 1,500 personnel were in the region, conducting patrols and intercepting suspected terrorists and illegal drug shipments.[369]
While Canada participated in several multinational missions in the early 2000s, it abstained from joining the US-ledcoalition of the willing during theIraq War.[370] AlthoughCanada was not directly involved in the Iraq War, its forces did help to relieve US naval assets during that conflict by expanding the CAF's role inCombined Task Force 151, a multinational task force combatingpiracy off the coast of Somalia.[371] Several Canadians, serving asexchange officers with British and US units, also participated in the2003 invasion of Iraq.[372][373] Conversely, someUS military personnel who opposed the Iraq War sought refuge in Canada after deserting to avoid deployment.[374]
Weeks after theSeptember 11th attacks, Canada committed to joining theUS-led war in Afghanistan (2001–2021). Canadian special forces participated in the initialinvasion of Afghanistan in 2001, with an additional Canadian infantry battle group of 1,200 soldiers deployed to Kandahar in February 2002 to combatal-Qaeda andTaliban forces and support humanitarian efforts.[369]
Following the invasion, Canadian units operated within NATO'sInternational Security Assistance Force (ISAF). The CAF contributed a 2,000-strong infantry battle group, alongside armoured, artillery, and aerial support, to ISAF. The battle group was stationed in Kabul from 2003 to 2005, tasked with providing security and disarming Afghan militias.[369] In November 2005, the CAF launchedOperation Archer, shifting its focus from Kabul to Kandahar.[375] After its relocation to Kandahar, the battle group oversaw counter-insurgency operations and the province'sProvincial Reconstruction Team. In Kandahar, the battle group achieved a series of victories likeOperation Medusa.[376] However, they were unable to root out all insurgents in the region, who took refuge on the Pakistani side of theAfghanistan-Pakistan border.[369]
Public support for the war in Canada waned as casualties mounted in late 2006.[369] This contributed to the selection of "the Canadian soldier" as theCanadian Press'Canadian Newsmaker of the Year.[377] Support for the war dropped further afterJoint Task Force 2 members were photographedhanding over detainees to Afghan security forces, who were subsequently tortured.[378] Despite mounting public opposition, the government remained committed to the war until 2011, partly due to the CAF's portrayal of the war as a success.[369]
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In 2011, Canada ended its combat operations in Afghanistan.[369] However, some Canadian soldiers remained until March 2014 to train theAfghan National Army andNational Police underNATO Training Mission-Afghanistan.[379]Canadian Special Operations Forces Command personnel were briefly redeployed to Afghanistan during the2021 Taliban offensive to evacuate Canadian citizens, close its embassy, and assist with theKabul airlift.[380]
Over 40,000 Canadian soldiers served in Afghanistan. The 12-year mission marked Canada's longest military campaign, with 165 Canadians killed, including 158 soldiers and seven civilians.[369] The conflict marked the first instance a female CAF member was killed in combat, CaptainNichola Goddard of theRoyal Canadian Horse Artillery.[381]
On 25 February 2011, the CAF launched Operation Mobile, an evacuation mission in response to theFirst Libyan Civil War.[382] On March 19, the operation expanded to include air and maritime combat missions to support the2011 military intervention in Libya to enforceUN Security Council Resolution 1973.[383][384] NATO assumed command of the multinational coalition throughOperation Unified Protector, with Lieutenant GeneralCharles Bouchard of the RCAF appointed as operational commander.[385] The coalition enforced ano-fly zone to prevent pro-Gaddafi forces from conducting air attacks onanti-Gaddafi forces and civilian areas.[384][383][386]
At its peak, 655 Canadians were deployed on Operation Mobile, including seven CF-18 fighter jets. The frigateHMCS Charlottetown, already in the Mediterranean as a part ofStanding NATO Maritime Group 1, also patrolled Libya's coast. In May 2011,Charlottetown came under hostile fire from a shore battery, marking the first attack on a Canadian warship since the Korean War.[382] On October 28, Prime MinisterStephen Harper declared the successful end of the mission.[387]
After insurgent groups took control of parts of Mali, the Malian government requested military aid from France in January 2013. France sought assistance from NATO allies to support itsoperation in Mali, including Canada, which initially provided aC-17 Globemaster III transport aircraft.[388] From 2015 to 2022, the CAF supportedFrench counter-insurgency operations in the Sahel,[389][390] deploying over 1,250 personnel for helicopter medical evacuations from 2018 to 2019.[391] The CAF began a phased withdrawal from Mali in 2019 as theRomanian Armed Forces assumed responsibility the operation's helicopter medevacs.[392] All remaining CAF personnel were withdrawan from Mali in November 2023.[393]
In September 2014, Canada joined a globalcoalition against the Islamic State.[394] From November 2014 to February 2016, Canadian CF-18s conducted 251 airstrikes in Iraq and five in Syria.[395] In February 2016, the CAF reoriented its mission from combat operations to training,[396][397] reducing the size of its mission.[398][399] The mission deployments are based at a logistics hub in Kuwait and include training missions in Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon.[398]
Canadian special forces were deployed to support the training mission.[397] The conflict saw incresed use of special forces in favour of conventional forces to addressasymmetric threats ingrey-zone operations.[400] In 2021, they participated in twoIraqi Armed Forces operations in non-combat roles.[401][400] Another Canadian special forces operator was involved inTalon Anvil, a 20-person USAF special operations group criticized for bypassing rules intended to safeguard civilians, resulting in hundreds of non-combatant deaths.[402]
In the 2020s, Canada renewed its military focus on the Arctic as part of itsbroader Arctic policy, citing security concerns over Russia and China. However, delays in completing theNanisivik Naval Facility onBaffin Island, commissioned in 2007, has left a gap in Canada's Arctic capabilities.[403] To address this, Canada announced major investments including 88F-35 fighter jets, eight icebreaking ships, and 12 under-ice submarines. Arctic operating hubs were also planned forYellowknife,Iqaluit, andInuvik. However, the potential land impact of these initiatives raised concerns among Indigenous communities, with Inuit leaders calling for meaningful consultation and involvement in decision-making process.[404]
Canada has participated in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN effort from its inception to 1989.[405] Over 125,000 Canadians served as peacekeepers, with around 130 Canadians having died during these operations.[406] Canada's support for multilateralism andinternationalism are closely tied to its peacekeeping efforts.[407][408][409]
Canada's role in the development of and participation inpeacekeeping during the 20th century shaped its reputation as a positive middle power.[410][411] Canada's successful mediation of the 1956Suez Crisis gave it credibility as a country committed to the common good.[412][413] The Canadian public increasingly identified peacekeeping as the country's foremost contribution to international affairs.[414][415][416]
Canada faced controversy over its involvement in some peacekeeping missions, prompting a military reassessment in the late 1990s.[417] By the 21st century, Canadian involvement in UN peacekeeping greatly declined, with its peacekeeping efforts reallocated to UN-sanctionedoperations through NATO.[418] This shift resulted in more militarized and lethal peacekeeping operations, rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.[419]
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