| Canada–United States border | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Characteristics | |
| Entities | |
| Length | 8,891 km (5,525 mi) |
| History | |
| Established | September 3, 1783 Signing of theTreaty of Paris at the end of theAmerican War of Independence |
| Current shape | April 11, 1908 Treaty of 1908 |
| Treaties | |
| Notes | See list of current disputes |
Theinternational border betweenCanada and theUnited States is the longest in the world by total length.[a] The boundary (including boundaries in the Pacific coasts,Great Lakes, and Atlantic coasts) is 8,891 km (5,525 mi) long. The land border has two sections: Canada's border with thenorthern tier of thecontiguous United States to its south, and with the U.S. state ofAlaska to its northwest. The length of the Alaska-Canada border is 1,538 km (956 mi). The bi-nationalInternational Boundary Commission deals with matters relating to marking and maintaining the boundary, and theInternational Joint Commission deals with issues concerning boundary waters. The agencies responsible for facilitating legal passage through the international boundary are theCanada Border Services Agency (CBSA) andU.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP).
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TheTreaty of Paris of 1783 ended theAmerican Revolutionary War betweenGreat Britain and the United States. In the second article of the Treaty, the parties agreed on all boundaries of the United States, including, but not limited to, the boundary to the north along what was thenBritish North America. The agreed-upon boundary included the line from the northwest angle ofNova Scotia to the northwesternmost head of theConnecticut River and proceeded down along the middle of the river to the45th parallel of north latitude.
The parallel had been established in 1763 byKing George III as the boundary between the provinces ofQuebec andNew York (including what would later become theState of Vermont).[1] It wassurveyed and marked by John Collins and Thomas Valentine from 1771 to 1773.[2] TheSt. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes became the boundary further west, between the United States and what is nowOntario. Northwest ofLake Superior, the boundary followed rivers to theLake of the Woods. From thenorthwesternmost point of the Lake of the Woods, the boundary was agreed to go straight west until it met theMississippi River. That line never meets the river, forthe river's source is farther south, so the border was eventually drawn from the lake's northwestern point south to the 49th Parallel.
TheJay Treaty of 1794 (effective 1796) created theInternational Boundary Commission, which was charged with surveying and mapping the boundary. It also provided for the removal of British forces fromDetroit, as well as other frontier outposts on the U.S. side. The Jay Treaty was superseded by theTreaty of Ghent (effective 1815), concluding theWar of 1812, which included pre-war boundaries.
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Signed in December 1814, the Treaty of Ghent ended the War of 1812, returning the boundaries of British North America and the United States to the state they were before the war. In the following decades, the United States and the United Kingdom concluded several treaties that settled the major boundary disputes between the two, enabling the border to bedemilitarized. TheRush–Bagot Treaty of 1817 provided a plan for demilitarizing the two combatant sides in the War of 1812 and also laid out preliminary principles for drawing a border between British North America and the United States.
TheTreaty of 1818 saw the expansion of both British North America and the United States, with their boundary extending westward along the49th parallel, from theNorthwest Angle at Lake of the Woods to theRocky Mountains.[3] While theLaurentian Divide had previously been agreed to as a border, the flatness of the terrain made it difficult to locate this line.[4] The treaty extinguished British claims to the south of the 49th in theRed River Valley, which was part ofRupert's Land. The treaty also extinguished U.S. claims to land north of the 49th in the watershed of theMissouri River, which was part of theLouisiana Purchase. The border vista theoretically follows the 49th parallel, but in practice, the 19th-century surveyed border markers vary by several hundred feet in spots.[5]
Disputes over the interpretation of the border treaties and mistakes in surveying required additional negotiations, which resulted in theWebster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842. The treaty resolved theAroostook War, a dispute over the boundary betweenMaine,New Brunswick, and theProvince of Canada. The treaty redefined the border betweenNew Hampshire, Vermont, and New York on the one hand, and the Province of Canada on the other, resolving theIndian Stream dispute and theFort Blunder dilemma at the outlet toLake Champlain.
The part of the 45th parallel that separates Quebec from the U.S. states of Vermont and New York had first been surveyed from 1771 to 1773 and markers placed (theCollins–Valentine line) after it had been declared the boundary between New York (including what later became Vermont) and Quebec. It was surveyed again after the War of 1812. The U.S. federal government began to construct fortifications just south of the border atRouses Point, New York, on Lake Champlain. After a significant portion of the construction was completed, measurements revealed that at that point, the actual 45th parallel was three-quarters of a mile (1.2  km) south of the surveyed line. The fort, which became known as "Fort Blunder", was in Canada, which created a dilemma for the U.S. that was not resolved until a provision of the treaty left the border on the meandering line as surveyed. The border along theBoundary Waters in present-day Ontario andMinnesota between Lake Superior and the Northwest Angle was also redefined.[6][7]
An1844 boundary dispute during thePresidency of James K. Polk led to a call for the northern boundary of the U.S. west of the Rockies to be54°40′N related to the southern boundary of Russia'sAlaska Territory. However, the United Kingdom wanted a border that followed theColumbia River to the Pacific Ocean. The dispute was resolved in theOregon Treaty of 1846, which established the 49th parallel as the boundary through the Rockies.[8][9]
The Northwest Boundary Survey (1857–1861) laid out the land boundary. However, the water boundary was not settled for some time. After thePig War in 1859, arbitration in 1872 established the border between theGulf Islands and theSan Juan Islands.
TheInternational Boundary Survey (or, the "Northern Boundary Survey" in the U.S.) began in 1872.[10] Its mandate was to establish the border as agreed to in the Treaty of 1818. Archibald Campbell led the way for the United States, while Donald Cameron, supported by chief astronomerSamuel Anderson, headed the British team. This survey focused on the border from the Lake of the Woods to the summit of the Rocky Mountains.[11]
In 1903, following a dispute that arose because of theKlondike Gold Rush, a joint United Kingdom–Canada–U.S. tribunal established theboundary of southeast Alaska.[12]
On April 11, 1908, it was agreed under Article IV of the "Treaty Between the United States of America and the United Kingdom Concerning the Boundary Between the United States and the Dominion of Canada from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean" to survey and delimit the boundary between Canada and the U.S. through the St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes by modern surveying techniques, which accomplished several changes to the border.[13][14] In 1925, the International Boundary Commission's temporary mission became permanent for maintaining the survey and mapping of the border, maintaining boundary monuments and buoys, and keeping the border clear of brush and vegetation for 6 m (20 ft), establishing a "border vista" extending for 3 m (10 ft) on each side of the line.[15] In 1909, under theBoundary Waters Treaty, theInternational Joint Commission was established for Canada and the U.S. to investigate and approve projects that affect the waters and waterways along the border.
As a result of the 2001September 11 attacks, the U.S. declared a level 1 alert at its borders, which required intrusive inspections of all crossing vehicles and passengers, resulting in considerable border congestion.[16][17][18] Canada'sChrétien administration worked with the U.S.Bush administration to make the border both more secure and less of an impediment for high-value goods and low-risk travellers; and on December 12, 2001, theSmart Border Declaration was signed.[16][19][20][21] The agreement pioneered border innovations that have become common worldwide, such as cargo and passenger preclearance, theFree and Secure Trade (FAST) program, and theNEXUS trusted traveller program.[17][16] The cooperation established by theSmart Border initiative made it easier to restrict border traffic during theCOVID-19 pandemic in 2020.[17][22]
On March 21, 2020, in response to theCOVID-19 pandemic in Canada andUnited States, the governments of both nations agreed to close the border for "non-essential" travel for an initial period of 30 days.[23]The closure was extended 15 times. In mid-June 2021, the Canadian government announced it would ease some entry requirements for fully vaccinated foreign nationals', permanent residents, and Canadian citizens starting on July 5.[24][25][26][27][28][29]The closure finally expired on July 21. In mid-July, the Canadian government announced that fully vaccinated American citizens and permanent residents could visit Canada starting August 9. The American government reopened its land border to fully vaccinated Canadian citizens effective November 8. The 2020–21 closure was reportedly the first long-term blanket closure of the border since the War of 1812.[30]
Business advocacy groups, noting the substantial economic impact of the closure on both sides of the border, called for more nuanced restrictions in place of the blanket ban on non-essential travel.[31] The Northern Border Caucus, a group in theU.S. Congress composed of members from border communities, made similar suggestions to the governments of both countries.[32] Beyond the closure itself, US PresidentDonald Trump also initially suggested the idea of deploying United States military personnel near the border with Canada in connection with the pandemic. He later abandoned the idea following vocal opposition from Canadian officials.[33][34]
The International Boundary is commonly said to be the world's "longest undefended border"—it is not militarized, although civilian law enforcement is present.[35] It is illegal to cross the border outside border controls, as anyone crossing the border must be checked under immigration[36][37] and customs laws.[38][39] The relatively low level of security measures contrasts with theUnited States–Mexico border, one-third as long as the Canada–U.S. border, which is actively patrolled by U.S. Customs and Border Protection personnel to preventdrug trafficking andillegal immigration.
Parts of the International Boundary cross through mountainous terrain or heavily forested areas, but significant portions also cross remote prairie farmland and the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River, in addition to the maritime components of the boundary at theAtlantic,Pacific, andArctic Ocean. The border runs through the middle of theMohawk Nation at Akwesasne and even divides some buildings in communities in New England and Quebec. TheUS Customs and Border Protection identifies the chief issues along the border as domestic and international terrorism, smuggling of illegal drugs and products such astobacco to evade customs duties, and illegal immigration.[40] A June 2019 U.S.Government Accountability Office report identified specific staffing and resource shortfalls faced by the CBP on the Northern border that adversely affect enforcement actions; the U.S. Border Patrol andCBP Air and Marine Operations identified an insufficient number of agents along the northern border for land, air, and maritime missions.[40] There are eightU.S. Border Patrol sectors, on the Canada–U.S. border, each covering a designated "area of responsibility"; the sectors, from west to east, are based inBlaine, Washington,Spokane, Washington,Havre, Montana,Grand Forks, North Dakota,Detroit, Michigan,Buffalo, New York,Swanton, Vermont, andHoulton, Maine.[40]
Following the September 11 attacks in the United States, security along the border was dramatically tightened by the two countries in both populated and rural areas. Both nations are also actively involved in detailed and extensive tactical and strategic intelligence sharing. In December 2010, Canada and the United States were negotiating an agreement titled "Beyond the Border: A Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Competitiveness" which would give the U.S. more influence over Canada's border security and immigration controls, and more information would be shared by Canada with the U.S.[41][35]
Residents of both nations who own property adjacent to the border are forbidden to build within the 6-metre-wide (20 ft) boundary vista without permission from the International Boundary Commission. They are required to report such construction to their respective governments.
All persons crossing the border are required to report to the customs agency of the country they have entered. Where necessary, fences or vehicle blockades are used. In remote areas, where staffed border crossings are not available, there are hiddensensors on roads, trails, railways, and wooded areas, which are located near crossing points.[42] There is noborder zone;[43] the U.S. Customs and Border Protection routinely sets up checkpoints as far as 100 miles (160 km) into U.S. territory.[44][45][46][47]
In August 2020, the United States constructed 3.8 km (2.4 mi) of short cable fencing along the border betweenAbbotsford, British Columbia, andWhatcom County, Washington.[48]
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Before 2007, American and Canadian citizens were only required to produce a birth certificate and a driver's license/government-issued identification card when crossing the Canada–United States border.[49]
However, in late 2006, theU.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced the final rule of theWestern Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI), which pertained to new identification requirements for travelers entering the United States. This rule, which marked the first phase of the initiative, was implemented on January 23, 2007, specifying six forms of identification acceptable for crossing the U.S. border (depending on mode):[50][51]
The requirement of a passport or an enhanced form of identification to enter the United States by air went into effect in January 2007, and went into effect for those entering the U.S. by land and sea in January 2008.[49] Although the new requirements for land and sea entry went into legal effect in January 2008, their enforcement did not begin until June 2009.[49] Since June 2009, every traveler arriving via a land or sea port-of-entry (includingferries) has been required to present one of the above forms of identification to enter the United States.
Conversely, to cross into Canada, a traveler must also carry identification, as well as a valid visa (if necessary) when crossing the border.[53] Forms of identification include a valid passport, a Canadian Emergency Travel Document, an enhanced driver's license issued by a Canadian province or territory, or an enhanced identification/photo card issued by a Canadian province or territory.[53] Several other documents may be used by Canadians to identify their citizenship at the border, although such documents must be supported with additional photo identification.[53]
Canadian and American citizens who are members of a trusted traveler program such as FAST or NEXUS, may present their FAST or NEXUS card as an alternate form of identification when crossing the international boundary by land or sea, or when arriving by air from only Canada or the United States.[53] Although permanent residents of Canada and the United States are eligible for FAST or NEXUS, they are required to travel with a passport and proof of permanent residency upon arrival at the Canadian border.[53] American permanent residents who are NEXUS members also require an Electronic Travel Authorization when crossing the Canadian border.[53]
Smuggling ofalcoholic beverages ("rum running") was widespread during the 1920s, whenProhibition was in effect nationally in theUnited States and parts ofCanada.
In more recent years, Canadian officials have brought attention todrug,cigarette, andfirearm smuggling from the United States, while U.S. officials have made complaints of drug smuggling via Canada. In July 2005, law enforcement personnel arrested three men who had built a 110-metre (360 ft) tunnel under the border between British Columbia andWashington, intended for the use of smugglingmarijuana, the first such tunnel known on this border.[54] From 2007 to 2010, 147 people were arrested for smuggling marijuana on the property of abed-and-breakfast in Blaine, Washington, but agents estimate that they caught only about 5% of smugglers.[55]
Because of its location,Cornwall, Ontario experiences ongoing smuggling—mostly of tobacco and firearms from the United States. The neighboringMohawk territory of Akwesasne straddles the Ontario–Quebec–New York borders, where itsFirst Nations sovereignty preventsOntario Provincial Police,Sûreté du Québec,Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Canada Border Services Agency,Canadian Coast Guard, United States Border Patrol,United States Coast Guard, andNew York State Police from exercising jurisdiction over exchanges taking place within the territory.[56][57]
In May 2009, the Mohawk people of Akwesasne occupied the area around theCanada Border Services Agency port of entry building to protest the Canadian government's decision to arm its border agents while operating on Mohawk territory. The north span of theSeaway International Bridge and the CBSA inspection facilities were closed. During this occupation, the Canadian flag was replaced with the flag of the Mohawk people. Although U.S. Customs remained open to southbound traffic, northbound traffic was blocked on the U.S. side by both American and Canadian officials. The Canadian border at this crossing remained closed for six weeks. On July 13, 2009, the CBSA opened a temporary inspection station at the north end of the north span of the bridge in the city of Cornwall, allowing traffic to once again flow in both directions.[58]
The Mohawk people of Akwesasne have staged ongoing protests at this border. In 2014, they objected to a process that made their crossing more tedious, believing it violated their treaty rights of free passage. When traveling from the U.S. toCornwall Island, they must first cross a second bridge into Canada for inspection at the new Canadian border station. Discussions between intergovernmental agencies were being pursued on the feasibility of relocating the Canadian border inspection facilities on the U.S. side of the border.[59]
In August 2017, the border between Quebec and New York saw an influx of up to 500 irregular crossings each day, by individuals seeking asylum in Canada.[60] In response Canada increased border security and immigration staffing in the area, reiterating that crossing the border irregularly did not affect a person's asylum status.[61][62] From the beginning of January 2017 up until the end of March 2018, the RCMP intercepted 25,645 people crossing the border into Canada from an unauthorized point of entry.Public Safety Canada estimates another 2,500 came across in April 2018 for a total of just over 28,000.[63]
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The length of the terrestrial boundary is 8,891 km (5,525 mi), of which 6,416 km (3,987 mi) is between Canada and thecontiguous 48 US states, and 2,475 km (1,538 mi) is between Canada andAlaska.[64] Eight out of thirteenprovinces and territories of Canada and thirteen out of fiftyU.S. states share this international boundary.
 |  | |||||
| Rank | State | Length of border with Canada | Rank | Province/territory | Length of border with the U.S. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Alaska | 2,475 km (1,538 mi) | 1 | Ontario | 2,727 km (1,682 mi) | |
| 2 | Michigan | 1,160 km (721 mi) | 2 | British Columbia | 2,168 km (1,347 mi) | |
| 3 | Maine | 983 km (611 mi) | 3 | Yukon | 1,244 km (786 mi) | |
| 4 | Minnesota | 880 km (547 mi) | 4 | Quebec | 813 km (505 mi) | |
| 5 | Montana | 877 km (545 mi) | 5 | Saskatchewan | 632 km (393 mi) | |
| 6 | New York | 716 km (445 mi) | 6 | New Brunswick | 513 km (318 mi) | |
| 7 | Washington | 687 km (427 mi) | 7 | Manitoba | 497 km (309 mi) | |
| 8 | North Dakota | 499 km (310 mi) | 8 | Alberta | 298 km (185 mi) | |
| 9 | Ohio | 235 km (146 mi) | ||||
| 10 | Vermont | 145 km (90 mi) | ||||
| 11 | New Hampshire | 93 km (58 mi) | ||||
| 12 | Idaho | 72 km (45 mi) | ||||
| 13 | Pennsylvania | 68 km (42 mi) | ||||
TheCanadian territory ofYukon shares its entire northwestern border with the U.S. state of Alaska, beginning at theBeaufort Sea at69°39′N141°00′W / 69.650°N 141.000°W /69.650; -141.000 and proceeding southwards along the141st meridian west. At 60°18′N, the border proceeds away from the 141st meridian west in a southeastward direction, following theSaint Elias Mountains. South of the60th parallel north, the border continues into British Columbia.[65]
British Columbia has two international borders with the United States: with the state of Alaska in the northwest of B.C, and with thecontiguous United States along the southern edge of the province, including (west to east) Washington,Idaho, andMontana.[66]
BC's Alaskan (Canada-United States) border, continuing from Yukon's, proceeds through the Saint Elias Mountains, followed byMount Fairweather at58°54′N137°31′W / 58.900°N 137.517°W /58.900; -137.517 (near theFairweather Glacier), where the border heads northwestward towards theCoast Mountains.[66] At59°48′N135°28′W / 59.800°N 135.467°W /59.800; -135.467 (nearSkagway, Alaska), the border begins a general southeastward direction along the Coast Mountains. The border eventually reaches thePortland Canal and follows it outward to theDixon Entrance, which takes the border down and out into the Pacific Ocean, terminating it upon reachinginternational waters. BC's (Canada) border along the contiguous U.S. begins southwest ofVancouver Island and northwest of theOlympic Peninsula, at the terminus of international waters in the Pacific Ocean and the northwest corner of the American state of Washington.[66] It follows theStrait of Juan de Fuca eastward, turning northeastward to enterHaro Strait. The border follows the strait in a northward direction but turns sharply eastward throughBoundary Pass, separating the Canadian Gulf Islands from the American San Juan Islands. Upon reaching theStrait of Georgia, the border turns due north and then towards the northwest, bisecting the strait until the 49th parallel north. After making a sharp turn eastbound, the border follows this parallel across theTsawwassen Peninsula, separatingPoint Roberts, Washington fromDelta, British Columbia, and continues into Alberta.
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The entire Canada–U.S. border in the provinces of both Alberta and Saskatchewan lies along the 49th parallel north.[67][68] Both provinces share borders with the state of Montana, while, farther east, Saskatchewan also shares a border withNorth Dakota.[68] On the American side, the states of Montana, North Dakota, and Minnesota all lie on this part of the border.
Along with the U.S. states of North Dakota and Minnesota (west to east), nearly the entire Canada–U.S. border inManitoba lies along the 49th parallel north.[69] At the province's eastern end, however, the border briefly enters the Lake of the Woods, turning north at48°59′N95°09′W / 48.983°N 95.150°W /48.983; -95.150 where it continues into the land along the western end of Minnesota's Northwest Angle, the only part of the United States, other than Alaska, that is north of the 49th parallel. The border reaches Ontario at49°23′N95°09′W / 49.383°N 95.150°W /49.383; -95.150. Procedures to cross through Manitoba to reach and return from this territory, which involve telephoning U.S. Customs, have been arranged.[70]
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The province of Ontario shares its border (west to east) with the U.S. states of Minnesota,Michigan,Ohio,Pennsylvania, and New York. The largest provincial international border, most of border is mostly a water boundary. It begins at the north-westernmost point of Minnesota's Northwest Angle. (49°23′N 95°09′W). From here, it proceeds eastward through the Angle Inlet into the Lake of the Woods, turning southward at49°19′N94°48′W / 49.317°N 94.800°W /49.317; -94.800 (nearDawson Township, Ontario) where it continues into theRainy River.[71] The border follows the river toRainy Lake, then subsequently through various smaller lakes, including Namakan Lake,Lac la Croix, andSea Gull Lake. The border then crosses theHeight of Land Portage over the divide between theHudson Bay drainage basin and that of the Great Lakes. The boundary then follows thePigeon River, which leads it out into Lake Superior. The border continues through Lake Superior andWhitefish Bay, into theSt. Mary's River then theNorth Channel. At45°59′N83°26′W / 45.983°N 83.433°W /45.983; -83.433 (betweenDrummond Township, Michigan, to the west andCockburn Island (Ontario) to the east), the border turns southward into theFalse Detour Channel, from which it reachesLake Huron. Through the lake, the border heads southward until reaching theSt. Clair River, leading it toLake St. Clair. The border proceeds through Lake St. Clair, reaching theDetroit River, which leads it toLake Erie, where it begins turning northeast. From Lake Erie, the border leads into theNiagara River, which takes it intoLake Ontario. From here, the boundary heads northwestward until it reaches43°27′N79°12′W / 43.450°N 79.200°W /43.450; -79.200, where it makes a sharp turn towards the northeast. The border then reaches the St. Lawrence River, proceeding through it until finally, at45°00′N74°40′W / 45.000°N 74.667°W /45.000; -74.667 (betweenMassena, New York and Cornwall, Ontario), the border splits from the river and continues into Quebec.[71]
The province of Quebec borders (west to east) the U.S. states of New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, beginning where the Ontario-New York border ends in the St. Lawrence River at the 45th parallel north.[72] The Quebec-New York border heads inland towards the east, remaining on or near the parallel, becoming the border of Vermont. At45°00′N71°30′W / 45.000°N 71.500°W /45.000; -71.500 (the tripoint of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Quebec), the border begins to follow various natural features of theAppalachian Mountains as it turns into the border of Maine. It continues to do so until46°25′N70°03′W / 46.417°N 70.050°W /46.417; -70.050 (nearSaint-Camille-de-Lellis, Quebec, on the Canadian side, and unorganized territory on the American side), where it heads north, then northeastward at46°41′N69°59′W / 46.683°N 69.983°W /46.683; -69.983 (nearLac-Frontière, Quebec). Finally, at47°27′N69°13′W / 47.450°N 69.217°W /47.450; -69.217 (nearPohénégamook, Quebec), the border heads towardBeau Lake, going through it and continuing into New Brunswick.
The entire border of New Brunswick is shared with the U.S. state of Maine, beginning at the southern tip of Beau Lake at47°18′N69°03′W / 47.300°N 69.050°W /47.300; -69.050 (betweenRivière-Bleue, Quebec, andSaint-François Parish, New Brunswick), subsequently proceeding to theSaint John River.[73] The border moves through the River until47°04′N67°47′W / 47.067°N 67.783°W /47.067; -67.783 (betweenHamlin, Maine, andGrand Falls, New Brunswick), where it splits from the river. It heads southward to45°56′N67°47′W / 45.933°N 67.783°W /45.933; -67.783 (nearAmity, Maine), from whence it follows the Monument Brook further south into theChiputneticook Lakes, which subsequently leads the border to theSt. Croix River. The border proceeds through the St. Croix toPassamaquoddy Bay, which then leads it toGrand Manan Island into the middle of theBay of Fundy. Here, the border turns towards the south and terminates upon reaching international waters.
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United States Customs and Border Protection maintains pre-clearance facilities at nine Canadian airports with nonstop air service to the United States:Calgary;Edmonton;Halifax Stanfield;Montreal–Trudeau;Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier;Toronto-Bishop,Toronto–Pearson,Vancouver; andWinnipeg James Armstrong Richardson. These procedures expedite travel by allowing flights originating in Canada to land at a U.S. airport without being processed as an international arrival. Canada does not maintain equivalent personnel at U.S. airports due to the limited number of Canada-bound flights from U.S. locations. Both New York LaGuardia (LGA) and Washington National (DCA) airports lack immigration and customs inspection facilities. However, U.S. pre-clearance facilities in Toronto and Montreal permit nonstop service to New York and Washington.
Aline house is a building located so that an international boundary passes through it. Several such buildings exist along the U.S.–Canada border:
The Canada–U.S. border has six airports and elevenseaplane bases whose runways straddle the borderline. Such airports were built before theU.S. entry into World War II as a way to legally transfer U.S.-built aircraft, such as theLockheed Hudson, to Canada under the provisions of theLend-Lease Act. In the interest of maintaining neutrality, U.S. military pilots were forbidden to deliver combat aircraft to Canada. As a result, the aircraft were flown to the border, where they landed, and then were towed on their wheels over the border by tractors or horses overnight. The next day, the planes were crewed byRCAF pilots and flown to other locations, typically air bases inEastern Canada andNewfoundland. The planes were flown to theUnited Kingdom and deployed in theBattle of Britain.[79]
Piney Pinecreek Border Airport is located inPiney, Manitoba, andPinecreek, Minnesota. The northwest–southeast-oriented runway straddles the border, and there are two ramps: one in the U.S. and one in Canada. The airport is owned by theMinnesota Department of Transportation.[80]
International Peace Garden Airport is located inBoissevain, Manitoba, andDunseith, North Dakota, adjacent to theInternational Peace Garden. The runway is entirely within North Dakota, but a ramp extends across the border to allow aircraft to access Canadian customs. While not jointly owned, it is operated as an international facility for customs clearance as part of the Peace Garden.Coronach/Scobey Border Station Airport (or East Poplar Airport) is located inCoronach, Saskatchewan, andScobey, Montana. The airport is jointly owned by the Canadian and U.S. governments, with its east-west runways sited exactly on the borderline.Coutts/Ross International Airport is located in Alberta and Montana. Like Coronach/Scobey, the east-west runway is sited exactly on the border. The airport is owned entirely by theMontana Department of Transportation (DOT) Aeronautics Division.
Del Bonita/Whetstone International Airport, located inDel Bonita, Alberta, andDel Bonita, Montana, has an east-west runway sited exactly on the border, similar to Coutts/Ross. The airport is officially owned by the state of Montana and run by the state's DOT Aeronautics Division; thus, it has been assigned a U.S.identifier only. The facility is set up for both the general public (15 passengers maximum per plane) as well as theAmerican military.[80]Avey Field State Airport is located in Washington and British Columbia. The privately owned airfield is mostly in the U.S., but several hundred feet of the north-south runway extend into Canada. As such, both Canadian and U.S. customs are available. It is assigned a U.S. identifier but does not have a Canadian one. Several seaplane bases have water runways that cross the border, though the extent to which they do may be difficult to ascertain. The land-based facilities for the bases are all contained within one country or the other; however, this leads to multiple situations where twin seaplane bases may share the same body of water. The following seaplane facilities exist on the border:
Currently, there are 119 legal land border crossings between the United States and Canada, 26 of which take place at a bridge or tunnel. Only 2 of the 119 crossings are one-way: theChurubusco–Franklin Centre Border Crossing, where travelers may enter only the United States; and theFour Falls Border Crossing, where travelers may enter only Canada. Six roads haveunstaffed road crossings, and do not have border inspection services in one or both directions, where travelers are legally allowed to cross the border. Those who cross are required to report to customs, which are stationed farther within.
There are 39railroads that cross the U.S.–Canada border, nine of which are no longer in use. Eleven of these railroads cross the border at a bridge or tunnel.
Only three international rail lines currently carry passengers between the U.S. and Canada. At Vancouver'sPacific Central Station, passengers are required to pass through U.S. partial pre-clearance and pass their baggage through anX-ray machine before being allowed to board theSeattle-boundAmtrakCascades train, which makes no further stops before crossing the border at Blaine, Washington, where the train stops for another CBP inspection.[82] Pre-clearance facilities are not available for the popularAdirondack (New York City to Montreal) orMaple Leaf (New York City to Toronto) trains, since these lines have stops between Montreal or Toronto and the border. Instead, passengers must clear customs at a stop located at the actual border.
TheFourth Connecticut Lake Trail (New Hampshire/Quebec) crosses several times while following the border vista before heading back to the United States. ThePacific Crest Trail crosses intoE. C. Manning Provincial Park in the remoteNorth Cascades mountains. Crossing into Canada was possible with an advance permit until 2025, when CBSA cancelled the program. It was never possible to enter the U.S. along the trail. Hikers must pass through an official border crossing.[83]
There are 13 internationalferry crossings operating between the U.S. and Canada. Two of them carry passengers only, and one carries only rail cars. Four of the ferries operate only on a seasonal basis. Similar to the pre-clearance facilities at Canadian airports, arrangements exist at major Canadianseaports that handle sealed direct import shipments into the U.S. Along the East Coast, ferry services operate between the province of New Brunswick and the state of Maine, while on the West Coast, they operate between British Columbia and the states of Washington and Alaska. There are also several ferry services in the Great Lakes operating between the province of Ontario and the states of Michigan, New York, and Ohio. The ferry between Maine and Nova Scotia ended its operations in 2009, resuming again in 2014. Seasonal vessel inspection stations are operated at tourist destinations such asHeart Island, New York, andRockport, Ontario. At landings unmanned by border personnel, telephoning the appropriate border agency may be sufficient to meet legal requirements.[84]
To be a true internationalexclave,all potential paths of travel from the exclave to the home country must cross over only the territory of a different country or countries. Like exclaves, practical exclaves are not contiguous with theland of the home country and haveland access only through another country or countries. Unlike exclaves, they are notentirely surrounded by foreign territory. Hence, they are exclavesfor practical purposes, without meeting the strict definition.
The termpene-exclave, also known as a "functional" or "practical" exclave,[85]: 31 was defined by G. W. S. Robinson (1959) as "parts of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently — in particular by wheeled traffic — only through the territory of another country."[86]: 283 Thus, a pene-exclave has land borders with other territories but is not surrounded by the other's land or territorial waters.[87]: 60 Catudal (1974) and Vinokurov (2007)[85]: 31–33 provide examples to further elaborate, including Point Roberts, Washington: "Although physical connections by water with Point Roberts are entirely within the sovereignty of the United States, land access is only possible through Canada."[88]: 113 Practical exclaves can exhibit continuity of state territory across territorial waters but a discontinuity on land, such as in the case of Point Roberts.[85]: 47
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The western portion of the Akwesasne reserve is a practical exclave of Canada because of the St. Lawrence River to the north, theSt. Regis River to the east, New York State, U.S., to the south. To travel by land elsewhere in Canada, one must drive through New York State.Campobello Island is another practical exclave located at the entrance to Passamaquoddy Bay, adjacent to the entrance toCobscook Bay, and within the Bay of Fundy. The island is part ofCharlotte County, New Brunswick, but is physically connected by theFranklin Delano Roosevelt Bridge withLubec, Maine, the easternmost tip of the continental United States. Premier, British Columbia, is an abandoned mining site accessible only through Hyder, Alaska.
Alaska is a non-contiguous U.S. state bounded by theBering Sea; the Arctic and Pacific oceans; and Canada's British Columbia and Yukon Territory. Additionally, because of the terrain, several municipalities insoutheast Alaska (the "Panhandle") are inaccessible by road, except via Canada. Specifically, the town ofHyder, Alaska, is accessible only throughStewart, British Columbia, or by floatplane. Moreover,Haines andSkagway are accessible by road only through Canada, although there are car ferries that connect them to other Alaskan places.Point Roberts, Washington is bounded by British Columbia, the Strait of Georgia, andBoundary Bay. In Minnesota,Elm Point, two small pieces of land to its west (Buffalo Bay Point), and the Northwest Angle are bounded by the province ofManitoba andLake of the Woods. In Vermont, theAlburgh Tongue, as well asProvince Point, which is the small end of a peninsula east of Alburgh, are bounded by Quebec and Lake Champlain.[c]
Between Quebec and Vermont,Province Island is a piece of land that primarily lies in Canada, though a small portion of the island is situated in the U.S. state, lying south of the 45th parallel with a border vista marking the international boundary.Canusa Street in Beebe Plain, Vermont, is the only place where the border lies in the middle of a street. Between North Dakota and Manitoba, the international border splits a peninsula within a lake on the border ofRolette County, North Dakota, and theWakopa Wildlife Management Area, MB.<ref {{citebook|url=http://www.historicmapworks.com/Map/US/501978/Hutchinson+Township++Page+069/Rolette+County+1910/North+Dakota/%7Cwork=Rolette County Atlas|year=1910|title=Hutchinson Township|page=69|publisher=Geo. A. Ogle & Co.|location=North Dakota|access-date=2017-06-19}} Note: This lake is located in the former Hutchinson Township in Rolette County on the property shown in this 1910 atlas as owned by A. O. Osthus. The lake otherwise appears to be unnamed.</ref> Likewise,Lake Metigoshe, lying in theTownship of Roland, borders the municipality ofWinchester, Manitoba. The border splits a shoreline, putting Canadian cabins on one side and the beach and boat docks for those cabins on the U.S. side, while land access is only through Canada.
called it the Northern Boundary Survey.
In mid-June, to the frustration of many on both sides of the border, Canada announced it was extending restrictions on nonessential travel until at least July 21. The ban includes travel via land, air, and sea. The United States closed its border withMexico contemporaneously with the Canada–U.S. closure.
Contiguous territories of states which for all regular commercial and administrative purposes can be reached only through the territory of other states are called pene-enclaves (pene-exclaves). These have virtually the same characteristics as complete enclaves (exclaves).
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