While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins ofCanada, the name is now accepted as coming from theSt. Lawrence Iroquoian wordkanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".[9] In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-dayQuebec City region used the word to direct French explorerJacques Cartier to the village ofStadacona.[10] Cartier later used the wordCanada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject toDonnacona (the chief at Stadacona);[10] by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along theSaint Lawrence River asCanada.[10]
UponConfederation in 1867,Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at theLondon Conference and the worddominion was conferred as the country's title.[14] By the 1950s, the termDominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "realm of the Commonwealth".[15]
TheCanada Act 1982, which brought theConstitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only toCanada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day toCanada Day.[16]
TheIndigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000[23] and two million,[24] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada'sRoyal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[25] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent.[26] The decline is attributed to several causes, including thetransfer of European diseases, to which they had no natural immunity,[27] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.[28]
It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada wasNorse explorerLeif Erikson.[38] In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years atL'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip ofNewfoundland.[39] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarerJohn Cabot explored and claimed Canada'sAtlantic coast in the name ofHenry VII of England.[40] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored theGulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name ofKing Francis I.[41] The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by theBasque andPortuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.[42] In general, early settlements during theAge of Discovery appear to have beenshort-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.[43]
The English established additional settlements inNewfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in theThirteen Colonies to the south.[48] A series offour wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of theSeven Years' War.[49] MainlandNova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.[50]
TheRoyal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created theProvince of Quebec out of New France, and annexedCape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[16] St John's Island (nowPrince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[52] To avert conflict inQuebec, the British Parliament passed theQuebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes andOhio Valley.[53] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.[54] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, andFrench civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.[55] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to theAmerican Revolution.[16]
After the successful American War of Independence, the1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formedUnited States and set the terms of peace, cedingBritish North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.[56] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration ofLoyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories.New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation ofSaint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city.[57] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, theConstitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (laterQuebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (laterOntario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.[58]
The Canadas were the main front in theWar of 1812 between the United States and theUnited Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.[60] Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.[61] New arrivals included refugees escaping theGreat Irish Famine as well asGaelic-speaking Scots displaced by theHighland Clearances.[62] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.[23]
Following three constitutional conferences, theBritish North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces:Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[68] Canada assumed control ofRupert's Land and theNorth-Western Territory to form theNorthwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited theRed River Rebellion and the creation of the province ofManitoba in July 1870.[69] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (whichhad been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,[70] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.[71] In 1898, during theKlondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory.Alberta andSaskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[71] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.[72]
The financial crisis of the Great Depression led theDominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become aCrown colony ruled by a British governor.[89] After tworeferendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[90]
Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in theCanada Act 1982, thepatriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of theCanadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[96] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country underits own monarchy.[97] In 1999,Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[98]
Average winter and summer hightemperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience acontinental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severewind chills.[128] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[129]
Much ofNorthern Canada is covered by ice andpermafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result ofclimate change in Canada.[130] Canada's annual average temperature over land has risen by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948.[118] The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.[131] In the southern regions of Canada,air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted inacid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity.[132] Canada is one of the largestgreenhouse gas emitters globally,[133] with emissions increased by 16.5 percent between 1990 and 2022.[134]
The monarchy is the source ofsovereignty and authority in Canada.[165] However, while the governor general or monarch may exercise their power without ministerialadvice in rarecrisis situations,[166] the use of the executive powers (orroyal prerogative) is otherwise directed by theCabinet, a committee ofministers of the Crown responsible to the electedHouse of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister,[167] thehead of government. To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of amajority of members in the House.[168] ThePrime Minister's Office (PMO) is one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown the governor general,lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads ofCrown corporations and government agencies.[166] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes theleader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.[169]
TheParliament of Canada passes all federal statute laws. It comprises the monarch, the House of Commons, and theSenate. While Canada inherited the British concept ofparliamentary supremacy, this was later, with the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982, all but completely superseded by the American notion ofthe supremacy of the law.[171]
Each of the 343members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in anelectoral district or riding. TheConstitution Act, 1982, requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although theCanada Elections Act limits this to four years with a "fixed" election date in October;general elections still must be called by the governor general and can be triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lostconfidence vote in the House.[172] The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.[173]
Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the 10 provinces.Provincial legislatures areunicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.[174] Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign, have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces,[175] and differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.[176]
TheConstitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.[177] TheConstitution Act, 1867 (known as theBritish North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.[178] TheStatute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and theConstitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and theCanadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[179] TheCharter guarantees basicrights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government; anotwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of theCharter for a period of five years.[180]
Canada's judiciary interprets laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. TheSupreme Court of Canada is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since 2017 byRichard Wagner, theChief Justice of Canada.[181] The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister andminister of justice.[182] The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.[183]
Common law prevails everywhere exceptQuebec, where civil law predominates.[184]Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[185] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.[186] In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federalRoyal Canadian Mounted Police.[187]
The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown[195] and power and authority from theConstitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by theParliament of Canada[196] and the commissioners represent theKing in his federal Council,[197] rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from theConstitution Act, 1867, are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively[198] and any changes to that arrangement require aconstitutional amendment, while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.[199]
Canada's role in developingpeacekeeping and its participation in major peacekeeping initiatives during the 20th century has played a major role in its positive global image.[219] Peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from the United States.[220] Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations,[221] such as theVietnam War or the2003 invasion of Iraq.[221] Since the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined.[222] The large decrease was a result of Canada directing its participation to UN-sanctioned militaryoperations through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, rather than directly through the UN.[223] The change to participation via NATO has resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.[224]
TheToronto financial district is the second-largest financial centre in North America, the seventh-largest globally in employment and the heart of Canada's finance industry.[225]
Canada'smixed-market economy[226] is highlydeveloped, ranking as the world'sninth-largest by nominal GDP as of 2023[update], at approximatelyUS$2.221 trillion.[227] The country is one of the world's largesttrading nations, with a highlyglobalized economy.[228] In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion.[229]Canada's exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States.[229] In 2018, Canada had atrade deficit in goods of $22 billion and a trade deficit in services of $25 billion.[229] TheToronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world bymarket capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of overUS$2 trillion.[230]
Since the early 20th century, the growth ofCanada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[242] The Canadian economy is dominated by theservice industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.[243] Canada has an unusually importantprimary sector, of which theforestry andpetroleum industries are the most prominent components.[244] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber.[245]
The2021 Canadian census enumerated atotal population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure.[276] It is estimated that Canada's population surpassed 40,000,000 in 2023.[277] The main drivers of population growth areimmigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.[278] Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[279] driven mainly byeconomic policy andfamily reunification.[280] A record 483,390 immigrants were admitted in 2024.[281] Canada leads the world inrefugee resettlement; it resettled more than 47,600 in 2022.[282] New immigrants settle mostly inmajor urban areas, such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.[283]
Canada's population density, at 4.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (11/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world,[276] with approximately 95 percent of the population residing south of the55th parallel north.[284] About 80 percent of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States.[285] Canada is highly urbanized, with over 80 percent of the population living in urban centres.[286] The majority of Canadians (over 70 percent ) live below the49th parallel, with 50 percent of Canadians living south of 45°42′ (45.7 degrees) north.[287] The most densely populated part of the country is theQuebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.[288]
The majority of Canadians (81.1 percent) live in family households, 12.1 percent report living alone, and 6.8 percent live with other relatives or unrelated persons.[289] Fifty-one percent of households are couples with or without children, 8.7 percent are single-parent households, 2.9 percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3 percent are single-person households.[289]
The country's ten largest self-reported ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 wereCanadian[e] (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed byEnglish (14.7 percent),Irish (12.1 percent),Scottish (12.1 percent),French (11.0 percent),German (8.1 percent),Chinese (4.7 percent),Italian (4.3 percent),Indian (3.7 percent), andUkrainian (3.5 percent).[296]
Of the 36.3million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 25.4million reported being "White", representing 69.8 percent of the population.[297][298] The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8million people, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021.[298] One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenousvisible minority,[299][f] the largest of which in 2021 wereSouth Asian (2.6million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7million; 4.7 percent),Black (1.5million; 4.3 percent),Filipinos (960,000 2.6 percent),Arabs (690,000; 1.9 percent), Latin Americans (580,000; 1.6 percent),Southeast Asians (390,000; 1.1 percent),West Asians (360,000; 1.0 percent),Koreans (220,000; 0.6 percent) andJapanese (99,000; 0.3 percent).[301]
Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.[302] In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada's population, were members of visible minority groups.[303] The 2021 census indicated that 8.3million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0 percent) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been alanded immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the1921 census previous record of 22.3 percent.[304] In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.[305]
Quebec's 1974Official Language Act established French as the only official language of the province.[308] Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantialFrancophone populations inNew Brunswick,Alberta, andManitoba, withOntario having the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.[309] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has anAcadian French minority constituting 33 percent of the population.[310] There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and in central and western Prince Edward Island.[311]
Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.[312] There are 11Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.[313] Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.[314]Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut and is one of three official languages in the territory.[315]
As of the 2021 census, just over 7.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as theirfirst language. Some of the most common non-official first languages includeMandarin (679,255 first-language speakers),Punjabi (666,585),Cantonese (553,380), Spanish (538,870),Arabic (508,410),Tagalog (461,150), Italian (319,505), German (272,865), andTamil (237,890).[289] The country is also home to manysign languages, some of which are Indigenous.[316]American Sign Language (ASL) is used across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.[317]Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec.[318]
Rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased since the 1970s.[320] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,[323] Canada has become apost-Christian,secular state.[324] Although the majority of Canadians considerreligion to be unimportant in their daily lives,[325] they still believe in God.[326] The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter.[327]
Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems ofpublicly funded health care, informally calledMedicare.[332] It is guided by the provisions of theCanada Health Act of 1984[333] and isuniversal.[334] Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national healthcare insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country".[335] Around 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.[336] This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such asprescription drugs,dentistry andoptometry.[336] Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs.[337]
In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to ademographic shift toward an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the average age in Canada was 41.9 years.[289] Life expectancy is 81.1 years.[338] A 2016 report by thechief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health".[339] Eighty percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.[340] Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity amongOECD countries, contributing to approximately 2.7 million cases ofdiabetes.[340] Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death),cardiovascular diseases,respiratory diseases, and diabetes—account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.[341] There are approximately 8million people aged 15 and older with one or moredisabilities in Canada.[342]
In 2024, theCanadian Institute for Health Information estimated that healthcare spending reached $372billion, or 12.4 percent of Canada's GDP for that year.[343] In 2022, Canada's per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 12th amonghealth-care systems in the OECD.[344] Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s, ranking above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.[345] TheCommonwealth Fund's 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of the 11 mostdeveloped countries ranked Canada second-to-last.[346] Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.[346] An increasing problem in Canada's health system is a lack of healthcare professionals,[347] and hospital capacity.[348]
Canada by province and territory, showing the percentage of the population aged 25 to 64 who had a bachelor's degree or higher, and the percentage point change from 2016 to 2021[349]
According to a 2022 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;[357] the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.[358] Canada spends an average of 5.3 percent of its GDP on education.[359] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more thanUS$20,000 per student).[360] As of 2022[update], 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.[361]
Historically, Canada has been influenced byBritish,French, and Indigenous cultures and traditions.[363] During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean, and Asian nationalities have added to theCanadian identity and its culture.[364]
Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote ajust society are constitutionally protected.[365] Since the 1960s, Canada has emphasizedhuman rights and inclusiveness for all its people.[366] Canadian identity shifted from primarily British-based to multicultural between the 1960s and 1970s.[367]The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments[368] and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.[369] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong and there is aFrench Canadian culture that is distinct fromEnglish Canadian culture.[370] As a whole, Canada is in theory acultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures with diverse areas andethnic enclaves.[371]
Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism.[376] Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, northern climate, lifestyles, and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.[377] The use of themaple leaf as a symbol dates to the early 18th century in New France.[378] The maple leaf is depicted on Canada'scurrent andprevious flags and on thearms of Canada.[379] Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", reflects the colours of the maple leaf through the seasons—green in thespring, gold in the earlyautumn, red at the firstfrost, and brown after falling.[380] The arms of Canada are closely modelled afterthose of the United Kingdom, with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.[381]
AuthorMargaret Atwood has suggested that during the 1970s Canadian literature was still looking for a national identity.[386]
Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.[387] The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration.[388] This developed into three major themes of historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada's position within the world, all of which tie into thegarrison mentality.[389] The evolution of Canadian literature is intricately linked to the country's historical and social contexts, often mirroring the challenges and changes in Canadian society.[390] As Canadian literature progressed into the 20th and 21st centuries, it began to address a broader array of subjects and themes, such as women's rights, LGBTQ rights, immigrant experiences, environmental issues, the relationship with Indigenous peoples, and Canadian values and identity.[391]
Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by Indigenous peoples,[396] and, in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous, and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.[397] The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.[398] TheGroup of Seven is often considered the first uniquely Canadian artistic group and style of painting.[399]Inuit art since the 1950s has been the traditional gift given to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.[400]
Historically, the Catholic Church was the primary patron of art in early Canada, especially Quebec.[401] The Government of Canada has played a role in the development of art, through the department ofCanadian Heritage by giving grants to art galleries,[402] as well as by establishing and funding art schools and colleges across the country, and through the Canada Council for the Arts.[403] The Canada CouncilArt Bank also helps artists by buying and publicizing their work.[404] Great achievements in art in Canada are recognized throughvarious awards and prizes, such as theMolson Prize, theAudain Prize for the Visual Arts, and theGovernor General's Visual and Media Arts Awards.[405]
"God Save the King" has been used in Canada since the late 1700s and is the country's de facto royal anthem.[415]Patriotic music by Canadians dates back over 200 years, with "The Bold Canadian", written in 1812, popular throughout the 19th century.[416] "The Maple Leaf Forever", written in 1866, was popular and served as an unofficial national anthem of English Canada.[417] "O Canada", originally composed in French in 1880, also served as an unofficial national anthem during the 20th century and was adopted as the country's official anthem in 1980.[418]
Canadian mass media, bothprint anddigital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "handful of corporations".[423] The largest of these corporations is the country's nationalpublic broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operatingits own radio andTV networks in both English and French.[424] In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such asTVOntario andTélé-Québec.[425]
Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France.[426] In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing.[427]Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.[428]
In terms of participation,swimming was the most commonly reported sport by over one-third (35 percent) of Canadians in 2023.[436] This was closely followed bycycling (33 percent) andrunning (27 percent).[436] The popularity of specific sports varies;[437] in general, the Canadian-born population was more likely to have participated inwinter sports such as ice hockey (the most popular young adult team sport),[436]skating,skiing andsnowboarding, compared with immigrants, who were more likely to have played soccer (the most popular youth team sport),[438]tennis or basketball.[436] Sports such asgolf,volleyball,badminton,bowling, andmartial arts are also widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.[439]
^"Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successfulbig tent parties that embody apluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adoptingcentrist policies andelectoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."[155] "The traditionalbrokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology."[156]
^ "TheRoyal Canadian Navy is composed of approximately 8,400 full-time sailors and 5,100 part-time sailors. The Army is composed of approximately 22,800 full-time soldiers, 18,700 reservists, and 5,000Canadian Rangers. The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13,000 Regular Force personnel and 2,400 Air Reserve personnel."[217]
^All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined byCanada's nationality laws. "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire.[294] "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage."[295]
^Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as "persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour".[300]
^Thornton, Russell (2000). "Population history of Native North Americans". In Haines, Michael R; Steckel, Richard Hall (eds.).A population history of North America.Cambridge University Press. pp. 13, 380.ISBN978-0-521-49666-7.
^O'Donnell, C. Vivian (2008)."Native Populations of Canada". In Bailey, Garrick Alan (ed.).Indians in Contemporary Society. Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 2. Government Printing Office. p. 285.ISBN978-0-16-080388-8.
^Allaire, Gratien (May 2007). "From 'Nouvelle-France' to 'Francophonie canadienne': a historical survey".International Journal of the Sociology of Language (185):25–52.doi:10.1515/IJSL.2007.024.ISSN0165-2516.
^Romney, Paul (Spring 1989). "From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture".Law and History Review.7 (1):121–174.doi:10.2307/743779.JSTOR743779.
^Mulvale, James P (July 11, 2008). "Basic Income and the Canadian Welfare State: Exploring the Realms of Possibility".Basic Income Studies.3 (1).doi:10.2202/1932-0183.1084.
^Mackey, Eva (2002).The house of difference: cultural politics and national identity in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 57.ISBN978-0-8020-8481-1.
^Landry, Rodrigue; Forgues, Éric (May 2007). "Official language minorities in Canada: an introduction".International Journal of the Sociology of Language (185):1–9.doi:10.1515/IJSL.2007.022.
^Munroe, HD (2009). "The October Crisis Revisited: Counterterrorism as Strategic Choice, Political Result, and Organizational Practice".Terrorism and Political Violence.21 (2):288–305.doi:10.1080/09546550902765623.
Foot, Richard (August 2, 2019)."Canadian Peacekeepers in Somalia".thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. Historica Canada.Archived from the original on March 12, 2024. RetrievedFebruary 26, 2024.
"Canada and the War in Afghanistan".The Canadian Encyclopedia. September 11, 2001.Archived from the original on January 29, 2024. RetrievedMarch 25, 2024.In total, 165 Canadians died during the war in Afghanistan (158 soldiers, 7 civilians). More than 2,000 members of the CAF were wounded or injured during the war.
^Etkin, David; Haque, CE; Brooks, Gregory R (April 30, 2003).An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada.Springer. pp. 569, 582, 583.ISBN978-1-4020-1179-5.
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