These are the titles as given in theConstitution of the Republic of Cameroon, Article X (English at theWayback Machine (archived 28 February 2006) andFrench at theWayback Machine (archived 28 February 2006) versions). 18 January 1996. The French version of the song is sometimes calledChant de Ralliement, as in Swarovski Orchestra (2004).National Anthems of the World. Koch International Classics; and the English version "O Cameroon, Cradle of Our Forefathers", as inDeLancey and DeLancey 61.
Cameroon,[a] officially theRepublic of Cameroon,[b] is a country inCentral Africa. It shares boundaries withNigeria to the west and north,Chad to the northeast, theCentral African Republic to the east, andEquatorial Guinea,Gabon, and theRepublic of the Congo to the south. Its coastline lies on theBight of Biafra, part of theGulf of Guinea, and theAtlantic Ocean. Due to its strategic position at the crossroads betweenWest Africa and Central Africa, it has been categorized as being in both camps. Cameroon's population of nearly 31 million people speak 250 native languages, in addition to the national tongues of English and French, or both. Early inhabitants of the territory included theSao civilisation aroundLake Chad and theBaka hunter-gatherers in the southeastern rainforest.Portuguese explorers reached the coast in the 15th century and named the areaRio dos Camarões (Shrimp River), which becameCameroon in English.Fulani soldiers founded theAdamawa Emirate in the north in the 19th century, and various ethnic groups of the west and northwest established powerful chiefdoms andfondoms.
Cameroon became aGerman colony in 1884 known asKamerun. AfterWorld War I, it was divided betweenFrance and theUnited Kingdom asLeague of Nations mandates. France took 4/5 and the United Kingdom 1/5 of the territory and both ruled it under mandate until independence in 1960 and 1961 respectively.[11] TheUnion des Populations du Cameroun (UPC) political party advocated independence but was outlawed by France in the 1950s, leading to thenational liberation insurgency fought between French and UPC militant forces until early 1971. In 1960, the French-administered part of Cameroon became independent, as the Republic of Cameroun, under PresidentAhmadou Ahidjo. Thesouthern part ofBritish Cameroons federated with it in 1961 to form theFederal Republic of Cameroon. The federation was abandoned in 1972. The country was renamed theUnited Republic of Cameroon in 1972 and back to the Republic of Cameroon in 1984 by a presidential decree by PresidentPaul Biya. Biya, the incumbent president, has led the country since 1982 following Ahidjo's resignation; he previously held office as prime minister from 1975 onward. Cameroon is governed as aunitarypresidential republic.
Portuguese sailors reached the coast in 1472. They noted an abundance of the ghost shrimpLepidophthalmus turneranus in theWouri River and named itRio dos Camarões (Shrimp River), which becameCameroon in English.[20] Over the following few centuries, European interests regularised trade with the coastal peoples, and Christianmissionaries pushed inland.[21]
Germany began to establish roots in Cameroon in 1868 when the Woermann Company of Hamburg built a warehouse. It was built on the estuary of the Wouri River. Later,Gustav Nachtigal made a treaty with one of the local kings to annex the region for the German emperor.[24] TheGerman Empire claimed the territory as the colony ofKamerun in 1884 and began a steady push inland; the natives resisted. Under the aegis of Germany, commercial companies were local administrations. Theseconcessions usedforced labour to run profitable banana, rubber, palm oil, and cocoa plantations.[24] Even infrastructure projects relied on a regimen of forced labour. This economic policy was much criticised by the other colonial powers.[25]
With the defeat of Germany inWorld War I, Kamerun became aLeague of Nations mandate territory and was split intoFrench Cameroon (French:Cameroun) andBritish Cameroon in 1919. France integrated the economy of Cameroon with that of France[26] and improved the infrastructure with capital investments and skilled workers, modifying the colonial system of forced labour.[25]
The British administered their territory from neighbouringNigeria. Natives complained that this made them a neglected "colony of a colony". Nigerian migrant workers flocked to Southern Cameroons, ending forced labour altogether but angering the local natives, who felt swamped.[27] The League of Nations mandates were converted intoUnited Nations Trusteeships in 1946, and the question of independence became a pressing issue in French Cameroon.[26]
France outlawed the pro-independence political party, theUnion of the Peoples of Cameroon (French:Union des Populations du Cameroun, UPC), on 13 July 1955.[28] This prompted along guerrilla war waged by the UPC and the assassination of several of the party's leaders, includingRuben Um Nyobè,Félix-Roland Moumié andErnest Ouandie. In the British Cameroons, the question was whether to reunify with French Cameroon or join Nigeria; the British ruled out the option of independence.[29]
On 1 October 1961, the formerly BritishSouthern Cameroons gained independence from the United Kingdom by vote of the UN General Assembly and merged into the Republic of Cameroon to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The federal republic was composed of two federated states,East Cameroon andWest Cameroon, each with its own legislature, government, and prime minister. 1 October is now observed asUnification Day, apublic holiday.[30] Ahidjo used the ongoing war with the UPC to concentrate power in the presidency, continuing with this even after the suppression of the UPC in 1971.[31]
United Republic of Cameroon and Republic of Cameroon
Former presidentAhmadou Ahidjo ruled from 1960 until 1982
Ahidjo's political party, theCameroon National Union (CNU), became the sole legal political party on 1 September 1966, and on 20 May 1972, areferendum was passed to abolish thefederal system of government in favour of a United Republic of Cameroon, headed fromYaoundé.[32] This day is now the country'sNational Day, a public holiday.[33] Ahidjo pursued an economic policy ofplanned liberalism, prioritisingcash crops and petroleum development. The government used oil money to create a national cash reserve, pay farmers, and finance major development projects; however, many initiatives failed when Ahidjo appointed unqualified allies to direct them.[34] Thenational flag was changed on 20 May 1975 with the two stars removed and replaced with a large central star as a symbol of national unity.
Ahidjo stepped down on 4 November 1982 and left power to his constitutional successor,Paul Biya. However, Ahidjo remained in control of the CNU and tried to run the country from behind the scenes until Biya and his allies pressured him into resigning. Biya began his administration by moving toward a more democratic government, but a failedcoup d'état nudged him toward the leadership style of his predecessor.[35]
In 1987,Dja Faunal Reserve, Cameroon's firstWorld Heritage Site, was inscribed on the list byUNESCO.[36] Aneconomic crisis took effect in the mid-1980s to late 1990s as a result of international economic conditions, drought, fallingpetroleum prices, and years of corruption, mismanagement, andcronyism. Cameroon turned to foreign aid, cut government spending, andprivatised industries. With the reintroduction of multi-party politics in December 1990, the former British Southern Cameroons pressure groups called for greater autonomy, and theSouthern Cameroons National Council advocated complete secession as the Republic ofAmbazonia.[37] The 1992 Labour Code of Cameroon gives workers the freedom to belong to a trade union or not to belong to any trade union at all. It is the choice of a worker to join any trade union in their occupation since there is more than one trade union in each occupation.[38]
In June 2006, talks concerning a territorial dispute over theBakassi peninsula were resolved. The talks involved President Paul Biya of Cameroon, then PresidentOlusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, and then UN Secretary-GeneralKofi Annan, and resulted in Cameroonian control of the oil-rich peninsula. The northern portion of the territory was formally handed over to the Cameroonian government in August 2006, and the remainder of the peninsula was left to Cameroon two years later, in 2008.[39] The boundary change triggered alocal separatist insurgency, as many Bakassians refused to accept Cameroonian rule. While most militants laid down their arms in November 2009,[40] some carried on fighting for years.[41]
In February 2008, Cameroon experienced its worst violence in 15 years when a transport union strike in Douala escalated intoviolent protests in 31 municipal areas.[42][43]
In May 2014, in the wake of theChibok schoolgirls kidnapping, presidents Paul Biya of Cameroon andIdriss Déby ofChad announced they were waging war onBoko Haram, and deployed troops to the Nigerian border.[44] Boko Haram launched several attacks into Cameroon, killing 84 civilians in aDecember 2014 raid, but suffering a heavy defeat in araid in January 2015. Cameroon declared victory over Boko Haram on Cameroonian territory in September 2018.[45]
Since November 2016, protesters from the predominantly English-speakingNorthwest andSouthwest regions of the country have been campaigning for continued use of the English language in schools and courts. People were killed and hundreds were jailed as a result of these protests.[46] In 2017, Biya's government blocked the regions' access to the Internet for three months.[47] In September, separatists starteda guerilla war for the independence of the Anglophone region as the Federal Republic ofAmbazonia. The government responded with a military offensive, and the insurgency spread across the Northwest and Southwest regions. As of 2019[update], fighting between separatist guerillas and government forces continues.[48] During 2020, numerous terrorist attacks—many of them carried out without claims of credit—and government reprisals have led to bloodshed throughout the country.[49] Since 2016, more than 450,000 people have fled their homes.[50] The conflict indirectly led to anupsurge in Boko Haram attacks, as the Cameroonian military largely withdrew from the north to focus on fighting the Ambazonian separatists.[51]
More than 30,000 people in northern Cameroon fled to Chad after ethnic clashes overaccess to water betweenMusgum fishermen and ethnicArab Choa herders in December 2021.[52][53]
ThePresident of Cameroon is elected and creates policy, administers government agencies, commands thearmed forces, negotiates and ratifies treaties, and declares a state of emergency.[54] The president appoints government officials at all levels, from theprime minister (considered the official head of government), to the provincial governors and divisional officers.[55] The president is selected by popular vote every seven years.[1] There have been 2 presidents since the independence of Cameroon.
TheNational Assembly makes legislation. The body consists of 180 members who are elected for five-year terms and meet three times per year.[55] Laws are passed on a majority vote.[1] The 1996 constitution establishes a second house of parliament, the 100-seatSenate. The government recognises the authority of traditional chiefs, fons, andlamibe to govern at the local level and to resolve disputes as long as such rulings do not conflict with national law.[56][57]
Cameroon's legal system is a mixture ofcivil law,common law, andcustomary law.[1] Although nominally independent, the judiciary falls under the authority of the executive'sMinistry of Justice.[56] The president appoints judges at all levels.[55] The judiciary is officially divided into tribunals, thecourt of appeal, and thesupreme court. The National Assembly elects the members of a nine-memberHigh Court of Justice that judges high-ranking members of government in the event they are charged with high treason or harming national security.[58][59]
Cameroonis viewed as rife with corruption at all levels of government. In 1997, Cameroon established anti-corruption bureaus in 29 ministries, but only 25% became operational,[60] and in 2012,Transparency International placed Cameroon at number 144 on a list of 176 countries ranked from least to most corrupt.[61] On 18 January 2006, Biya initiated an anti-corruption drive under the direction of theNational Anti-Corruption Observatory.[60] There are several high corruption risk areas in Cameroon, for instance, customs, public health sector and public procurement.[62] However, the corruption has gotten worse, regardless of the existing anti-corruption bureaus, as Transparency International ranked Cameroon 152 on a list of 180 countries in 2018.[63]
President Biya'sCameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM) was the only legal political party until December 1990. Numerous regional political groups have since formed. The primary opposition is theSocial Democratic Front (SDF), based largely in the Anglophone region of the country and headed byJohn Fru Ndi.[64]
Biya and his party have maintained control of the presidency and the National Assembly in national elections, which rivals contend were unfair.[37] Human rights organisations allege that the government suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups by preventing demonstrations, disrupting meetings, and arresting opposition leaders and journalists.[65][66] In particular, English-speaking people are discriminated against; protests often escalate into violent clashes and killings.[67] In 2017, President Biya shut down the Internet in the English-speaking region for 94 days, at the cost of hampering five million people, includingSilicon Mountain startups.[68]
Itsforeign policy closely follows that of its main ally, France (one of its former colonial rulers).[71][72] Cameroon relies heavily on France for its defence,[56] although military spending is high in comparison to other sectors of government.[73]
President Biya has engaged in a decades-long clash with the government of Nigeria over possession of the oil-richBakassi peninsula.[64] Cameroon and Nigeria share a 1,000-mile (1,600 km) border and have disputed the sovereignty of the Bakassi peninsula. In 1994 Cameroon petitioned theInternational Court of Justice to resolve the dispute. The two countries attempted to establish a cease-fire in 1996; however, fighting continued for years. In 2002, the ICJ ruled that theAnglo-German Agreement of 1913 gave sovereignty to Cameroon. The ruling called for a withdrawal by both countries and denied the request by Cameroon for compensation due to Nigeria's long-term occupation.[74] By 2004, Nigeria had failed to meet the deadline to hand over the peninsula. A UN-mediated summit in June 2006 facilitated an agreement for Nigeria to withdraw from the region and both leaders signed theGreentree Agreement.[75] The withdrawal and handover of control was completed by August 2006.[76]
In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Cameroon, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defendingChina'streatment of Uyghurs in theXinjiang region.[77]
The Cameroon Armed Forces (French:Forces armées camerounaises, FAC) consists of the country's army (Armée de Terre), the country's navy (Marine Nationale de la République (MNR), including naval infantry), the Cameroonian Air Force (Armée de l'Air du Cameroun, AAC), and theGendarmerie.[1]
The military is crucial in supporting Cameroon'sauthoritarian government since independence in 1960. The military has been involved in defeating rebellions, controlling protests for democratic reforms, combatingBoko Haram since 2014, and handling the Anglophone separatist movement that began in 2017.[78]
Human rights organisations accuse police and military forces of mistreating and even torturing criminal suspects, ethnic minorities,homosexuals, and political activists.[65][66][79][80]United Nations figures indicate that more than 21,000 people have fled to neighbouring countries, while 160,000 have been internally displaced by the violence, many reportedly hiding in forests.[81] Prisons are overcrowded with little access to adequate food and medical facilities,[79][80] and prisons run by traditional rulers in the north are charged with holding political opponents at the behest of the government.[66] However, since the first decade of the 21st century, an increasing number of police and gendarmes have been prosecuted for improper conduct.[79] On 25 July 2018, the UN High Commissioner for Human RightsZeid Ra'ad Al Hussein expressed deep concern about reports of violations and abuses in the English-speaking Northwest and Southwest regions of Cameroon.
According to OCHA, more than 1.7 million people require humanitarian assistance in the northwest and southwest regions. OCHA also estimates that at least 628,000 people have been internally displaced by violence in the two regions, while more than 87,000 have fled to Nigeria.[82][81]
Same-sex sexual acts are banned by section 347-1 of the penal code with a penalty of from 6 months up to 5 years imprisonment.[83]
Since December 2020,Human Rights Watch claimed that Islamist armed group Boko Haram has stepped up attacks and killed at least 80 civilians in towns and villages in the Far North region of Cameroon.[84]
Theconstitution divides Cameroon into 10 semi-autonomous regions, each under the administration of an electedRegional Council. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor.[54]
These leaders are charged with implementing the will of the president, reporting on the general mood and conditions of the regions, administering the civil service, keeping the peace, and overseeing the heads of the smaller administrative units. Governors have broad powers: they may order propaganda in their area and call in the army,gendarmes, and police.[54] All local government officials are employees of the central government's Ministry of Territorial Administration, from which local governments also get most of their budgets.[18]
The regions are subdivided into 58 divisions (Frenchdépartements). These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers (préfets). The divisions are further split into sub-divisions (arrondissements), headed by assistant divisional officers (sous-prefets). The districts, administered by district heads (chefs de district), are the smallest administrative units.[85]
The three northernmost regions are theFar North (Extrême Nord),North (Nord), andAdamawa (Adamaoua). Directly south of them are theCentre (Centre) andEast (Est). TheSouth Province (Sud) lies on the Gulf of Guinea and the southern border. Cameroon's western region is split into four smaller regions: theLittoral (Littoral) andSouth-West (Sud-Ouest) regions are on the coast, and theNorth-West (Nord-Ouest) andWest (Ouest) regions are in the western grassfields.[85]
At 475,442 square kilometres (183,569 sq mi), Cameroon is the world's 53rd-largest country.[86] The country is located inCentral Africa, on theBight of Bonny, part of theGulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean.[87] Cameroon lies between latitudes1° and13°N, and longitudes8° and17°E. Cameroon controls 12 nautical miles of the Atlantic Ocean.
Tourist literature describes Cameroon as "Africa in miniature" because it exhibits all major climates and vegetation of the continent: coast, desert, mountains, rainforest, and savanna.[88] The country's neighbours areNigeria and theAtlantic Ocean to the west;Chad to the northeast; theCentral African Republic to the east; andEquatorial Guinea,Gabon and theRepublic of the Congo to the south.[1]
Cameroon is divided into five major geographic zones distinguished by dominant physical, climatic, and vegetative features. The coastal plain extends 15 to 150 kilometres (9 to 93 mi) inland from the Gulf of Guinea[89] and has an average elevation of 90 metres (295 ft).[90] Exceedingly hot and humid with a shortdry season, this belt is densely forested and includes some of thewettest places on earth, part of theCross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests.[91][92]
TheSouth Cameroon Plateau rises from the coastal plain to an average elevation of 650 metres (2,133 ft).[93] Equatorial rainforest dominates this region, although its alternation betweenwet and dry seasons makes it less humid than the coast. This area is part of theAtlantic Equatorial coastal forestsecoregion.[94]
An irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus known as theCameroon range extends fromMount Cameroon on the coast—Cameroon's highest point at 4,095 metres (13,435 ft)[95]—almost toLake Chad at Cameroon's northern border at 13°05'N. This region has a mild climate, particularly on theWestern High Plateau, although rainfall is high. Its soils are among Cameroon's most fertile, especially around volcanic Mount Cameroon.[95] Volcanism here has createdcrater lakes. On 21 August 1986, one of these,Lake Nyos, belched carbon dioxide and killed between 1,700 and 2,000 people.[96] This area has been delineated by theWorld Wildlife Fund as theCameroonian Highlands forests ecoregion.[97]
The southern plateau rises northward to the grassy, ruggedAdamawa Plateau. This feature stretches from the western mountain area and forms a barrier between the country's north and south. Its average elevation is 1,100 metres (3,609 ft),[93] and its average temperature ranges from 22 °C (71.6 °F) to 25 °C (77 °F) with high rainfall between April and October peaking in July and August.[98][99] Thenorthern lowland region extends from the edge of the Adamawa to Lake Chad with an average elevation of 300 to 350 metres (984 to 1,148 ft).[95] Its characteristic vegetation is savanna scrub and grass. This is an arid region with sparse rainfall and high median temperatures.[100]
Cameroon has four patterns of drainage. In the south, the principal rivers are theNtem,Nyong,Sanaga, and Wouri. These flow southwestward or westward directly into the Gulf of Guinea. TheDja andKadéï drain southeastward into theCongo River. In northern Cameroon, theBénoué River runs north and west and empties into theNiger. TheLogone flows northward into Lake Chad, which Cameroon shares with three neighbouring countries.[101]
Cameroon's wildlife is composed of itsflora andfauna. It is one of the wettest parts of Africa and records Africa's second-highest concentration of biodiversity.[102][103] In Cameroonforest cover is around 43% of the total land area, equivalent to 20,340,480 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 22,500,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forests covered 20,279,380 hectares (ha), and planted forests covered 61,100 hectares (ha). Around 15% of the forest area was found within protected areas, for the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be underpublic ownership.[104][105]
To preserve its wildlife, Cameroon has more than 20 protected reserves comprising national parks, zoos, forest reserves, and sanctuaries. The protected areas were first created in the northern region under the colonial administration in 1932; the first two reserves established wereMozogo Gokoro Reserve and theBénoué Reserve, which was followed by theWaza Reserve on 24 March 1934. The coverage of reserves was initially about 4 percent of the country's area, rising to 12 percent; the administration proposes to cover 30 percent of the land area.[106]
Cameroon's per capita GDP (Purchasing power parity) was estimated at US$3,700 in 2017. Major export markets include the Netherlands, France, China, Belgium, Italy, Algeria, and Malaysia.[1]
Unemployment was estimated at 3.38% in 2019,[110] and 23.8% of the population was living below the internationalpoverty threshold of US$1.90 a day in 2014.[111] Since the late 1980s, Cameroon has been following programmes advocated by theWorld Bank andInternational Monetary Fund (IMF) to reduce poverty, privatise industries, and increase economic growth.[56] The government has taken measures to encouragetourism in the country.[112]
An estimated 70% of the population farms, and agriculture comprised an estimated 16.7% of GDP in 2017.[1] Most agriculture is done at the subsistence scale by local farmers using simple tools. They sell their surplus produce, and some maintain separate fields for commercial use. Urban centres are particularly reliant on peasant agriculture for their foodstuffs. Soils and climate on the coast encourage extensive commercial cultivation of bananas, cocoa, oil palms, rubber, and tea. Inland on the South Cameroon Plateau, cash crops include coffee, sugar, and tobacco. Coffee is a major cash crop in the western highlands, and in the north, natural conditions favour crops such as cotton, groundnuts, and rice. Production ofFairtrade cotton was initiated in Cameroon in 2004.[113]
Dutch bulls and cows at Wallya community during the rainy season in Cameroon
Livestock are raised throughout the country.[114] Fishing employs 5,000 people and provides over 100,000 tons of seafood each year.[115][116]Bushmeat, long a staple food for rural Cameroonians, is today a delicacy in the country's urban centres. The commercial bushmeat trade has now surpassed deforestation as the main threat to wildlife in Cameroon.[117][118]
The southern rainforest has vast timber reserves, estimated to cover 37% of Cameroon's total land area.[116] However, large areas of the forest are difficult to reach. Logging, largely handled by foreign-owned firms,[116] provides the government US$60 million a year in taxes (as of 1998[update]), and laws mandate the safe and sustainable exploitation of timber. Nevertheless, in practice, the industry is one of the least regulated in Cameroon.[119]
Factory-based industry accounted for an estimated 26.5% of GDP in 2017.[1] More than 75% of Cameroon's industrial strength is located inDouala andBonabéri. Cameroon possesses substantial mineral resources, but these are not extensively mined (seeMining in Cameroon).[56] Petroleum exploitation has fallen since 1986, but this is still a substantial sector such that dips in prices have a strong effect on the economy.[120] Rapids and waterfalls obstruct the southern rivers, but these sites offer opportunities for hydroelectric development and supply most of Cameroon's energy. The Sanaga River powers the largest hydroelectric station, located at Edéa. The rest of Cameroon's energy comes from oil-powered thermal engines. Much of the country remains without reliable power supplies.[121]
Three trans-African automobile routes pass through Cameroon:
Transport in Cameroon is often difficult. Only 6.6% of the roadways are tarred.[1] Roadblocks often serve little other purpose than to allow police and gendarmes to collect bribes from travellers.[122] Road banditry has long hampered transport along the eastern and western borders, and since 2005, the problem has intensified in the east as theCentral African Republic has further destabilised.[123]
Douala seaport
Intercity bus services run by multiple private companies connect all major cities. They are the most popular means of transportation followed by the rail serviceCamrail. Rail service runs fromKumba in the west toBélabo in the east and north toNgaoundéré.[124] International airports are located inDouala andYaoundé, with a third under construction inMaroua.[125] Douala is the country's principal seaport[126] andKribi Deepwater Port started operations in 2014. In the north, the Bénoué River is seasonally navigable from Garoua across into Nigeria.[127]
Although press freedoms have improved since the first decade of the 21st century, the press is corrupt and beholden to special interests and political groups.[128] Newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid government reprisals.[79] The major radio and television stations are state-run and othercommunications, such as land-based telephones and telegraphs, are largely under government control.[129] However, cell phone networks and Internet providers have increased dramatically since the first decade of the 21st century[130] and are largely unregulated.[66]
The population of Cameroon was 27,198,628 in 2021.[132][133] The life expectancy was 62.3 years (60.6 years for males and 64 years for females).[1]
Cameroonian women on Women's Day Celebration, 2015
Cameroon has slightly more women (50.5%) than men (49.5%). Over 60% of the population is under age 25. People over 65 years of age account for only 3.11% of the total population.[1]
Cameroon's population is almost evenly divided between urban and rural dwellers.[134] Population density is highest in the large urban centres, the western highlands, and the northeastern plain.[135] Douala, Yaoundé, andGaroua are the largest cities. In contrast, the Adamawa Plateau, southeastern Bénoué depression, and most of the South Cameroon Plateau are sparsely populated.[136]
People from the overpopulated western highlands and the underdeveloped north are moving to the coastal plantation zone and urban centres for employment.[138] Smaller movements are occurring as workers seek employment in lumber mills and plantations in the south and east.[139] Although the national sex ratio is relatively even, these out-migrants are primarily males, which leads to unbalanced ratios in some regions.[140]
The homes of theMusgum, in the Far North Region, made of earth and grass
Bothmonogamous andpolygamous marriage are practised, and the average Cameroonian family is large and extended.[141] In the north, women tend to the home, and men herd cattle or work as farmers. In the south, women grow the family's food, and men provide meat and grow cash crops. Cameroonian society is male-dominated, and violence and discrimination against women are common.[66][79][142]
The number of distinct ethnic and linguistic groups in Cameroon is estimated to be between 230 and 282.[143][144] The Adamawa Plateau broadly bisects these into northern and southern divisions. The northern peoples areSudanic groups, who live in the central highlands and the northern lowlands, and theFulani, who are spread throughout northern Cameroon. A small number ofShuwa Arabs live near Lake Chad. Southern Cameroon is inhabited by speakers ofBantu andSemi-Bantu languages. Bantu-speaking groups inhabit the coastal and equatorial zones, while speakers of Semi-Bantu languages live in the Western grassfields. Some 5,000 Gyele and BakaPygmy peoples roam the southeastern and coastal rainforests or live in small, roadside settlements.[145] Nigerians make up the largest group of foreign nationals.[146]
In 2007, Cameroon hosted approximately 97,400 refugees and asylum seekers. Of these, 49,300 were from the Central African Republic (many driven west by war),[148] 41,600 fromChad, and 2,900 fromNigeria.[149] Kidnappings of Cameroonian citizens by Central African bandits have increased since 2005.[123]
In the first months of 2014, thousands of refugees fleeing the violence in theCentral African Republic arrived in Cameroon.[150]
On 4 June 2014, AlertNet reported:
Almost 90,000 people have fled to neighbouring Cameroon since December and up to 2,000 a week, mostly women and children, are still crossing the border, the United Nations said.
"Women and children are arriving in Cameroon in a shocking state, after weeks, sometimes months, on the road, foraging for food," saidErtharin Cousin, executive director of theWorld Food Programme (WFP).[151]
The official percentage of French and English speakers by the Presidency of Cameroon is estimated to be 70% and 30% respectively.[152] German, the language of the original colonisers, has long since been displaced by French and English.Cameroonian Pidgin English is the lingua franca in the formerly British-administered territories.[153] A mixture of English, French, and Pidgin calledCamfranglais has been gaining popularity in urban centres since the mid-1970s.[154][155]
In addition to the colonial languages, there are approximately 250 other languages spoken by nearly 20 million Cameroonians[156] making Cameroon one of the most linguistically diverse countries in the world.[157]
In 2017, there were language protests by the Anglophone population against perceived oppression by francophone speakers.[158] The military was deployed against the protesters and people were killed, hundreds imprisoned and thousands fled the country.[159] This culminated in the declaration of an independentRepublic of Ambazonia,[160] which has since evolved into theAnglophone Crisis.[158] It is estimated that by June 2020, 740,000 people had been internally displaced as a result of this crisis.[161]
Cameroon has a high level ofreligious freedom and diversity.[79] The majority faith isChristianity, practised by about two-thirds of the population, whileIslam is a significant minority faith, adhered to by about one-fourth. In addition, traditional faiths are practised by many. Muslims are most concentrated in the north, while Christians are concentrated primarily in the southern and western regions, but practitioners of both faiths can be found throughout the country.[163] Large cities have significant populations of both groups.[163] Muslims in Cameroon are divided intoSufis,Salafis,[164]Shias, andnon-denominational Muslims.[164][165]
People from the North-West and South-West provinces, which used to be a part ofBritish Cameroons, have the highest proportion of Protestants. The French-speaking regions of the southern and western regions are largely Catholic.[163] Southern ethnic groups predominantly follow Christian or traditional Africananimist beliefs or asyncretic combination of the two. People widely believe in witchcraft, and the government outlaws such practices.[166] Suspected witches are often subject to mob violence.[79] The Islamist jihadist groupAnsar al-Islam has been reported as operating in North Cameroon.[167]
In the northern regions, the locally dominantFulani ethnic group is almost completely Muslim, but the overall population is fairly evenly divided among Muslims, Christians, and followers of indigenous religious beliefs (calledKirdi ("pagan") by the Fulani).[163] TheBamum ethnic group of the West Region is largely Muslim.[163] Native traditional religions are practised in rural areas throughout the country but rarely are practised publicly in cities, in part because many indigenous religious groups are intrinsically local.[163]
In 2013, the total adultliteracy rate in Cameroon was estimated to be 71.3%. Among youths aged 15–24, the literacy rate was 85.4% for males and 76.4% for females.[168] Most children have access to state-run schools that are cheaper than private and religious facilities.[169] The educational system is a mixture of British and French precedents,[170] with most instruction in English or French.[171]
Cameroon has one of the highest school attendance rates in Africa.[169] Girls attend school less regularly than boys do because of cultural attitudes, domestic duties, early marriage, pregnancy, and sexual harassment. Although attendance rates are higher in the south,[169] a disproportionate number of teachers are stationed there, leaving northern schools chronically understaffed.[79] In 2013, the primary school enrollment rate was 93.5%.[168]
The quality of health care is generally low.[174] Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 56 years in 2012, with 48 healthy life years expected.[137] Fertility rate remains high in Cameroon with an average of 4.8 births per woman and an average mother's age of 19.7 years old at first birth.[137] In Cameroon, there is only one doctor for every 5,000 people, according to the WHO.[175] In 2014, just 4.1% of total GDP expenditure was allocated to healthcare.[176] Due to financial cuts in the health care system, there are few professionals. Doctors and nurses who were trained in Cameroon emigrate because in Cameroon the payment is poor while the workload is high. Nurses are unemployed even though their help is needed. Some of them help out voluntarily so they will not lose their skills.[177] Outside the major cities, facilities are often dirty and poorly equipped.[178]
In 2012, the top three deadly diseases wereHIV/AIDS,lower respiratory tract infection, anddiarrheal diseases.[137] Endemic diseases includedengue fever,filariasis,leishmaniasis,malaria,meningitis,schistosomiasis, andsleeping sickness.[179] TheHIV/AIDS prevalence rate in 2016 was estimated at 3.8% for those aged 15–49,[180] although a strong stigma against the illness keeps the number of reported cases artificially low.[174] 46,000 children under age 14 were estimated to be living with HIV in 2016. In Cameroon, 58% of those living with HIV know their status, and just 37% receiveARV treatment. In 2016, 29,000 deaths due to AIDS occurred in both adults and children.[180]
Breast ironing, a traditional practice that is prevalent in Cameroon, may affect girls' health.[181][182][183][184]Female genital mutilation (FGM), while not widespread, is practised among some populations; according to a 2013 UNICEF report,[185] 1% of women in Cameroon have undergone FGM. Also impacting women's and girls' health, the contraceptive prevalence rate is estimated to be just 34.4% in 2014.Traditional healers remain a popular alternative toevidence-based medicine.[186]
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Cameroonranks 79th out of 127 countries with sufficient data. Cameroon's GHI score is 18.3, which is considered moderate.[187]
Music anddance are integral parts of Cameroonian ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings, and storytelling.[188][189] Traditional dances are highly choreographed and separate men and women or forbid participation by one sex altogether.[190] The dances' purposes range from pure entertainment to religious devotion.[189] Traditionally, music is transmitted orally. In a typical performance, a chorus of singers echoes a soloist.[191]
Musical accompaniment may be as simple as clapping hands and stamping feet,[192] but traditional instruments include bells worn by dancers, clappers, drums, andtalking drums, flutes, horns, rattles, scrapers, stringed instruments, whistles, and xylophones; combinations of these vary by ethnic group and region. Some performers sing complete songs alone, accompanied by a harplike instrument.[191][193]
The two most popular music styles aremakossa andbikutsi. Makossa developed in Douala and mixes folk music, highlife,soul, andCongo music. Performers such asManu Dibango,Francis Bebey,Moni Bilé, andPetit-Pays popularised the style worldwide in the 1970s and 1980s. Bikutsi originated as war music among the Ewondo. Artists such asAnne-Marie Nzié developed it into popular dance music beginning in the 1940s, and performers such asMama Ohandja andLes Têtes Brulées popularised it internationally during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.[196][197]
The most notable holiday associated with patriotism in Cameroon isNational Day, also called Unity Day. Among the most notable religious holidays areAssumption Day, andAscension Day, which is typically 39 days after Easter. In the Northwest and Southwest provinces, collectively calledAmbazonia, October 1 is considered a national holiday, a date Ambazonians consider the day of their independence from Cameroon.[198]
Plantains and "Bobolo" (made from cassava) served with Ndolè (meat and shrimp)
Cuisine varies by region, but a large, one-course, evening meal is common throughout the country. A typical dish is based on cocoyams,maize,cassava (manioc),millet,plantains,potatoes,rice, oryams, often pounded into dough-likefufu. This is served with a sauce, soup, or stew made from greens,groundnuts,palm oil, or other ingredients.[199] Meat and fish are popular but expensive additions, with chicken often reserved for special occasions.[200] Dishes are often quite spicy; seasonings include salt, red pepper sauce, andmaggi.[201][202][203]
Cutlery is common, but food is traditionally manipulated with the right hand. Breakfast consists of leftovers of bread and fruit withcoffee ortea. Generally, breakfast is made from wheat flour in different foods such as puff-puff (doughnuts), accra banana made frombananas and flour, bean cakes, and many more. Snacks are popular, especially in larger towns where they may be bought fromstreet vendors.[204][205]
Cameroon's relatively large and diverse population is likewise diverse in its fashions. Climate, religious, ethnic, and cultural beliefs, and the influences of colonialism, imperialism, and globalisation are all factors in contemporary Cameroonian dresses. Noteworthy Cameroonian dresses includePagnes,sarongs worn by Cameroon women;Chechia, a traditional hat; kwa, a male handbag; andGandura, male custom attire.[206]Wrappers andloincloths are used extensively by both women and men but their use varies by region, with influences fromFulani styles more present in the north andIgbo andYoruba styles more often in the south and west.[207]Imane Ayissi is one of Cameroon's most prominent fashion designers and has received international recognition.[208]
A woman weaves a basket nearLake Ossa, Littoral Region. Cameroonians practise such handicrafts throughout the country
Traditional arts and crafts are practised throughout the country for commercial, decorative, and religious purposes. Woodcarvings and sculptures are especially common.[209] The high-quality clay of the western highlands is used for pottery and ceramics.[189] Other crafts includebasket weaving,beadworking, brass and bronze working,calabash carving and painting,embroidery, andleather working. Traditional housing styles use local materials and vary from temporary wood-and-leaf shelters of nomadicMbororo to the rectangular mud-and-thatch homes of southern peoples. Dwellings of materials such as cement and tin are increasingly common.[210]Contemporary art is mainly promoted by independent cultural organisations (Doual'art,Africréa) andartist-run initiatives (Art Wash,Atelier Viking,ArtBakery).[211]
Cameroonian literature has concentrated on both European and African themes. Colonial-era writers such asLouis-Marie Pouka andSankie Maimo were educated by European missionary societies and advocatedassimilation into European culture to bring Cameroon into the modern world.[212] AfterWorld War II, writers such asMongo Beti andFerdinand Oyono analysed and criticised colonialism and rejected assimilation.[213][214][215]
Shortly after independence, filmmakers such asJean-Paul Ngassa andThérèse Sita-Bella explored similar themes.[216][217] In the 1960s,Mongo Beti,Ferdinand Léopold Oyono and other writers explored postcolonialism, problems of African development, and the recovery of African identity.[218] In the mid-1970s, filmmakers such asJean-Pierre Dikongué Pipa andDaniel Kamwa dealt with the conflicts between traditional and postcolonial society. Literature and films during the next two decades focused more on wholly Cameroonian themes.[219]
National policy strongly advocates sport in all forms. Traditional sports include canoe racing and wrestling, and several hundred runners participate in the 40 km (25 mi)Mount Cameroon Race of Hope each year.[220] Cameroon is one of the few tropical countries to havecompeted in theWinter Olympics.
Sport in Cameroon is dominated by football. Amateur football clubs abound, organised along ethnic lines or under corporate sponsors. Thenational team has been one of the most successful in Africa since its strong showing in the1982 and1990 FIFA World Cups. Cameroon has won fiveAfrican Cup of Nations titles and the gold medal at the2000 Olympics.[221]
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