| Calotropis procera | |
|---|---|
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Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Asterids |
| Order: | Gentianales |
| Family: | Apocynaceae |
| Genus: | Calotropis |
| Species: | C. procera |
| Binomial name | |
| Calotropis procera | |
| Synonyms[2] | |
Asclepias proceraAiton | |
Calotropis procera is a species offlowering plant in the familyApocynaceae that is native toNorthern andTropical Africa,Western Asia,South Asia andIndochina (mainlandSoutheast Asia). It typically reaches a height between 6 feet (1.8 m) to 8 feet (2.4 m), and rarely to as high as 15 feet (4.6 m), and grows in sunny to partly-shaded habitats such as disturbed and overgrazed lands, rangeland, roadsides, river flats and coastal dunes.[3] Its green fruits contain a toxic milky sap that is extremely bitter and turns into a latex-like substance, which is resistant to soap.
Common names for the plant includeApple of Sodom,[2]Sodom apple,roostertree,[3]king's crown,[4]small crownflower,[3]giant milkweed,[5]rubber bush,[2] andrubber tree.[2] The names "Apple of Sodom" and "Dead Sea Apple" stem from the ancient authorsJosephus andTacitus, who described the plant growing in the area of biblicalSodom.[6] Although not native to theNew World, the plant (and other relatedmilkweed species) has been cultivated, and feedsmonarch butterfly caterpillars, in places such asCalifornia,Hawaii and the island ofPuerto Rico.[3][5] InArabic, it is known asal-ashkhar.[7]
Some biblical commentators believe that the ashkhar may have been the poisonousgourd (or poison-tasting gourd) that led to "death in the pot" in2 Kings 4:38–41. In this story, a well-meaning servant of the prophetElisha gathers herbs and many unknown gourds and casts them into the pot. After the outcry from the band of prophets, Elisha instructs them to cast flour into the stew pot, and they are saved.[8]
In 1938, botanists Hannah and Ephraim HaReuveni, authors of "The Squill and the Asphodel" and parents ofNoga Hareuveni, speculated that theעַרְעָ֣רʿaʿār was the ashkhar.[9][10]
The fibre of the ashkhar may have been used for the linen of theHigh Priest of Israel.[citation needed]
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The fruit is described by the Roman Jewish historianJosephus, who saw it growing near what he calls Sodom, near theDead Sea: "[A]s well as the ashes growing in their fruits; which fruits have a color as if they were fit to be eaten, but if you pluck them with your hands, they dissolve into smoke and ashes."[11]
The ashkhar is listed in theMishnah andTalmud. The fibers attached to the seeds may have been used aswicks. However, according to the Mishnah, it is one of therabbinically prohibited activities of Shabbat.[9][12]
In hisBiblical Researches in Palestine, American biblical scholarEdward Robinson describes it as the fruit of theAsclepias gigantea velprocera, a tree 10–15 feet high, with a grayish cork-like bark calledʿosher byPalestinians. He says the fruit resembled "a large, smooth apple or orange, hanging in clusters of three or four." When "pressed or struck, it explodes with a puff, like a bladder or puff-ball, leaving only the shreds of the thin rind and a few fibers. It is filled chiefly with air, which gives it the round form, while in the center, a small, slender pod runs through it which contains a small quantity of fine silk, which Palestinians collect and twist into matches for their guns."[6]
Bedouins of theSinai Peninsula andNegev traditionally made use of the fibers of this plant for makingṭāgiyyāt (skullcaps).[13]
Known asashkhar in theUnited Arab Emirates, it is a common desert shrub with a wide range of medicinal applications in traditional Bedouin medicine.[14] It has been linked to several cases of poisoning and corneal damage caused by children unknowingly touching its sap and then their eyes.Bedouins have long held that the plant causes blindness if contact is made with the eyes and any part of the plant. Its roots were traditionally burned and used as a component ofgunpowder by Bedouins in theTrucial States.[15]
The plant is known to occur throughout the tropical belt and is also common in theWest Indies (e.g.Jamaica, Puerto Rico),[5] where the locals know it as "pillow cotton".[16] When the ripe "apples" burst, the fibrous contents are ejected along with the seeds.
The giant milkweed is used for fibre and medicine in Southern Africa, but it rapidly invades subsistence agricultural fields reducing yields. The plant is poisonous if eaten by livestock. It thrives in the hot northern regions of Limpopo Province. This plant is also found along road verges and in drainage lines.[17]
In Australia, it is a weed ofWestern Australia, theNorthern Territory,South Australia andQueensland.[18] It is thought to have arrived in the Northern Territory via the seeds which have tufts of silky hairs: the silky material (originating in Africa or Asia) having been used as padding in camel saddles.[19]
In the Northern Territory, it is found on alluvial plains, ephemeral watercourses and run-on areas. It also occurs on red earth plains and heavy soil plains.[20]
The milky sap contains a complex mix of chemicals, some of which are steroidal heart poisons known as "cardiacaglycones". These belong to the same chemical family as similar ones found infoxgloves (Digitalis purpurea).[citation needed]
The plant contains steroidal components that are the cause of its toxicity. In the case of the Calotropis glycosides, their names arecalotropin,calotoxin,calactin,uscharidin andvoruscharin.[citation needed]
John Milton alludes to this plant in his epic poemParadise Lost[21] while describing the fruit thatSatan and his cohorts eat after having temptedAdam and Eve to eat an apple from thetree of the knowledge of good and evil:
...greedy they pluck'd
The Frutage fair to sight, like that which grew
Neer that bituminous Lake whereSodom flam'd;
This more delusive, not the touch, but taste
Deceav'd; they fondly thinking to allay
Thir appetite with gust, instead of Fruit
Chewd bitter Ashes, which th' offended taste
With spattering noise rejected: oft they assayd
Hunger and thirst constraining...— Paradise Lost (2nd ed.)Book 10 lines 560–568
Marilyn Manson recorded a song named "Apple of Sodom" forthe soundtrack album of the 1997David Lynch filmLost Highway.[22]
The Puerto Rican monarch's primary host plants are red milkweed (Asclepias curassavica), which is native to North and South America, and giant milkweed (Calotropis procera), which is native to Europe.
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