InEast Asia and theIslamic world, calligraphy is a prominent element in art. Its visual form is often influenced by the meaning of the text as a whole or the individual words.[6]
ModernWestern calligraphy is used in announcements, includingwedding invitations, as well as in type andcomputer font design,letter cutting, hand-letteredlogo design,religious art,graphic design, commissioned calligraphic art, carvedstoneinscriptions, andmemorial documents. It is also used for theatricalprops, moving images for film and television,testimonials,birth anddeath certificates, maps, and other written works.[7][8] Modern Western calligraphy incorporates a wide range of styles, from functional inscriptions and designs to fine art pieces, where the legibility of letters varies.[1]Contemporary calligraphy has been defined as "the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious, and skillful manner".[1]: 18
In the Western world, the principal tools for calligraphy arepens andbrushes. Thenibs of calligraphic pens may be flat, round, or pointed.[9][10][11] For decorative purposes, multi-nib pens (steel brushes) can be used.Felt-tip andballpoint pens may also be used; however, these do not produce angled lines. There are certain styles of calligraphy, such asGothic script, that require a stub nib pen. In Asia, amakta, or penknife, is frequently used by calligraphers to cut reed pens. Natural reeds offer a wider range of motion compared to metallic pens.[12][13]
The ink used for calligraphy is usually water-based and lessviscous than the oil-based ink used in printing. Certain specialty papers with high ink absorption and uniform texture help one draw cleaner lines.[14]Parchment orvellum is often used, because imperfections can be erased with a knife, and lines can be viewed through it without using alightbox. Otherwise, lightboxes and templates can be used to achieve straight lines without leaving pencil marks.Ruled paper can be used directly or with a lightbox. Often, it has line spacing between one-quarter or one-half inch, although one-inch spaces are occasionally used, as is the case withUncial script (fromLatin:litterea unciales,lit.'inch-high letters'[15]).[16]
Inancient China, the oldest known Chinese characters areoracle bone script (甲骨文), carved on oxscapulae and tortoiseplastrons. The rulers in theShang dynasty carved pits on such animals' bones and baked them for insight into military affairs, agricultural harvests, weather, or even procreation, as a form ofscapulimancy.[19] During thedivination ceremony, a heat source was applied to the carved pits, causing the bones to crack; they were then interpreted, with the interpretation being carved directly on the shell or bone, sometimes after the characters were written with a brush.[19] With the development of thebronzeware script (jīn wén) andlarge seal script (dà zhuàn),[20] "cursive" signs continued[further explanation needed].Mao Gong ding is one of the most famous examples of bronzeware script in Chinese calligraphic history. It contains 500 inscribed characters, the largest number of bronze inscriptions discovered to date.[clarification needed][21] Moreover, each archaic kingdom of current China had its own set of characters.
InImperial China, the graphs on oldsteles have been preserved and can be viewed in museums. Some date back to 200 BCE and are written in thesmall seal script (小篆xiǎo zhuàn) style. Around 220 BCE, the emperorQin Shi Huang, the first to conquer the entire Chinese basin, imposed several reforms, among themLi Si's character unification, which created a set of 3300 standardized small seal characters.[22] Despite the fact that the main writing implement of the time was already the brush, few papers survive from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles. Theclerical script (隸書/隸书) (lì shū), which was more regularized and in some ways similar to modern text, was also authorised under Qin Shi Huang.[23]
Between clerical script and traditional regular script, there is another transitional type of calligraphic work called Wei Bei. It started during theNorth and South dynasties (420–589 CE) and ended before theTang dynasty (618–907).[24]
The traditionalregular script (kǎi shū), largely finalized byZhong You (鐘繇, 151–230) and his followers and still in use today, is even more regularized. Its spread was encouraged byEmperor Mingzong of Later Tang (926–933), who ordered theprinting of the classics using new wooden blocks in kaishu[further explanation needed]. Printing technologies encouraged shape stabilization. Thekǎi shū shape of characters 1000 years ago was mostly similar to that at the end of Imperial China;[citation needed] however, small changes to the characters have been made. For example, the shape of广 has changed from the version in theKangxi Dictionary of 1716 to the version found in modern books. TheKangxi and current shapes have tiny differences, while stroke order remains the same, following the old style.[25]
Styles which did not survive includebāfēnshū, a mix of 80% small seal script and 20% clerical script[clarification needed]. Somevariant Chinese characters were unorthodox or locally-used for centuries. They were generally understood but never used in official texts. Some of these unorthodox variants, in addition to some newly created characters, compose thesimplified Chinese character set.[citation needed]
There are many factors that influence the final result of a calligrapher's work. Physical factors include the shape, size, stretch, andhair type of the ink brush; the colour, pigment density, and water density of the ink; and the paper's surface texture and speed in absorbing water. The calligrapher's technique also influences the result, as the look of finished characters is affected by the amount of ink and water the brush absorbs and by the brush's pressure, angle, and direction. Changing these variables produces thinner or bolder strokes and smooth or toothed borders. Eventually, the speed, acceleration, and deceleration of a skilled calligrapher's movements greatly affect the final shape of characters and give them their "spirit".
Cursive styles such asxíngshū (行書/行书)(semi-cursive or running script) andcǎoshū (草書/草书) (cursive, rough script, or grass script) are less constrained and faster, and movements made by the writing implement are more visible. The stroke orders of these styles vary more, sometimes creating radically different forms. They descend from the clerical script, at around the same time as the regular script (Han dynasty), butxíngshū andcǎoshū were used for personal notes only and not as a standard. Thecǎoshū style was highly appreciated duringEmperor Wu of Han's reign (140–187 CE).[citation needed]
Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese calligraphy were each influenced by Chinese calligraphy. Calligraphy has influenced most major art styles in East Asia, includingink and wash painting, a style ofChinese,Japanese, andKorean painting based entirely on calligraphy and which uses similar tools and techniques.
Japanese, Koreans, and Vietnamese have developed their own sensibilities and styles of calligraphy while incorporating Chinese influences.
Japanese calligraphy extends beyond the set ofCJK strokes to also include local alphabets such ashiragana andkatakana, with specific characteristics such as new curves and moves, and specific materials (Japanese paper,washi和紙, and Japanese ink).[27]
Vietnamese calligraphy is calledthư pháp (書法, literally "the way of letters or words") and is based onChữ Nôm andChữ Hán, the historical Vietnamese writing system rooted in the impact of Chinese characters and replaced with the Latin alphabet as a result ofFrench colonial influence. Calligraphic traditions maintaining the historical employment of Han characters continue to be preserved in modern Vietnamese calligraphy.[28]
Tibetan calligraphy is central toTibetan culture. The script is derived fromIndic scripts. The nobles of Tibet, such as the HighLamas and inhabitants of thePotala Palace, were often capable calligraphers. For centuries,Tibet has been a center ofBuddhism, which places high significance on the written word. Although there is not a large body ofsecular pieces, they do exist, but usually are related in some way to Tibetan Buddhism. Almost all high religious writing involved calligraphy, including letters sent by theDalai Lama and other religious and secular authorities. Calligraphy is particularly evident onprayer wheels, although this calligraphy was forged rather than penned or brushed, much like Arab and Roman calligraphy on buildings. Although originally done with a reed, Tibetan calligraphers now use chisel-tipped pens and markers as well.[citation needed]
The Philippines has many ancient and indigenous scripts collectively calledSuyat scripts. Various ethno-linguistic groups in the Philippines prior to Spanish colonization in the 16th century through modern independence have used these scripts in various media. By the end of the colonial period, only four suyat scripts had survived and remained in everyday use in some communities. These four scripts areHanunó'o of the Hanuno'oMangyan people,Buhid of the BuhidMangyan people,Tagbanwa script of theTagbanwa people, andPalaw'an of thePalaw'an people. All four scripts were inscribed in theUNESCOMemory of the World international register, under the namePhilippine Paleographs (Hanunoo, Build, Tagbanua and Pala’wan), in 1999.[29]
In protest of colonization, many artists and cultural experts have revived suyat scripts that went extinct after the Spanish introduced the Latin alphabet. The scripts being revived include theKulitan script of theKapampangan people, thebadlit script of variousVisayan ethnic groups, theIniskaya script of theEskaya people, theBaybayin script of theTagalog people, and theKur-itan script of theIlocano people, among many others.[30][31][32] The diverse array of distinct suyat scripts are collectively called Filipino suyat calligraphy.[33][34] Calligraphy using the Western alphabet and the Arabic alphabet are also prevalent in the Philippines due to its colonial past. However, the Western and Arabic alphabets are not considered suyat, and this practice is not considered suyat calligraphy.[35][36]
The preservation ofreligious texts is the most common purpose for Indian calligraphy.Buddhist monks were trained in calligraphy and shared responsibility for duplicating sacred scriptures.[37]Jaina traders incorporated illustrated manuscripts celebrating Jaina saints. These manuscripts' fine calligraphy was produced using inexpensive material like palm leaves and birch.[38]
Budha inSamrup Rachna Calligraphy by Syed Mohammed Anwer
Ethiopian (Abyssinian) calligraphy began with theGe'ez script, which replacedEpigraphic South Arabian in theKingdom of Aksum, which was developed specifically forEthiopian Semitic languages. In languages that use it, includingAmharic andTigrinya, the script is calledFidäl, which means 'script' or 'alphabet'. The Epigraphic South Arabian letters were used for a few inscriptions into the 8th century, though not in any South Arabian language sinceDʿmt.
Early inscriptions in Ge'ez and Ge'ez script are dated to as early as the 5th century BCE, with a sort of proto-Ge'ez written in ESA since the 9th century BCE. Ge'ez literature begins with the Christianization of Ethiopia (and the civilization ofAxum) in the 4th century, during the reign ofEzana of Axum.
The Ge'ez script is read from left to right and has been adapted to write other languages, usually ones that are also Semitic. The most widespread use is forAmharic inEthiopia andTigrinya inEritrea and Ethiopia.[citation needed]
Maya calligraphy was expressed withMaya glyphs; modern Maya calligraphy is mainly used onseals and monuments in theYucatán Peninsula inMexico. Maya glyphs are rarely used in government offices; however, inCampeche,Yucatán andQuintana Roo, calligraphy inMaya languages is written in Latin script rather than Maya glyphs. Some commercial companies in southern Mexico use Maya glyphs as symbols of their business. Some community associations and modern Maya brotherhoods use Maya glyphs as symbols of their groups.[citation needed]
Most of the archaeological sites in Mexico such asChichen Itza,Labna,Uxmal,Edzna,Calakmul, etc. have glyphs in their structures. Carved stone monuments known asstele are common sources of ancient Maya calligraphy.[39][40]
Calligraphy in aLatinBible of 1407 on display inMalmesbury Abbey, England. This Bible was handwritten in Belgium, by Gerard Brils, for reading aloud in amonastery.
TheLatin alphabet first appeared about 600 BCE inancient Rome, and by the first century CE, it had developed intoRoman imperial capitals carved on stones,rustic capitals painted on walls, andRoman cursive written on tablets for daily use. In the second and third centuries, theuncial lettering style developed. As writing withdrew to monasteries, uncial script was found more suitable for copying theBible and other religious texts. When the Roman Empire fell and Europe entered theearly Middle Ages during the fourth and fifth centuries, monasteries were the main preservers of calligraphic traditions.[41]
Book of Kells, Folio 283 R, reproduction and study in 1991 of the Insular Majuscule by Mario Kleff.
Christian churches developed writing through the prolific copying of the Bible, theBreviary, and other sacred texts.[43] Two distinct styles of writing known as uncial and half-uncial (from the Latinuncia, or "inch") developed from a variety of Romanbook hands.[44] The 7th–9th centuries in Northern Europe were the heyday of Celtic illuminated manuscripts, such as theBook of Durrow,Lindisfarne Gospels and theBook of Kells.[45]
In his devotion to improving scholarship,Charlemagne recruited "a crowd of scribes", according toAlcuin, the Abbot ofYork.[46] Alcuin developed the style known as the Caroline orCarolingian minuscule. The first manuscript in thishand was theGodescalc Evangelistary (finished 783) – a Gospel book written by the scribe Godescalc.[47] Carolingian is the script from which modern book type descends.[48]
In the eleventh century, the Caroline evolved into theblackletter ("Gothic") script, which was more compact and made it possible to fit more text on a page.[49]: 72 The Gothic calligraphy styles became dominant throughout Europe and, in 1454, whenJohannes Gutenberg developed the first printing press in Mainz, Germany, the Gothic style was adopted for its use, making it the firsttypeface.[49]: 141
Evolution of minuscule.
In the 15th century, the rediscovery of old Carolingian texts encouraged the creation of thehumanist minuscule orlittera antiqua. The 17th century saw theBatarde script from France, and the 18th century saw theEnglish script spread across Europe and the world through books.
In the mid-1600s, French officials, flooded with documents written in various hands and varied levels of skill, complained that many such documents were beyond their ability to decipher. Therefore, the Office of the Financier restricted all legal documents to three hands, namely the Coulee, the Rhonde (known asRound hand in English), and a Speed Hand sometimes called theBastarda.[50]
While there were many great French masters at the time, the most influential in proposing these hands was Louis Barbedor, who publishedLes Ecritures Financière Et Italienne Bastarde Dans Leur Naturel,c. 1650.[50]
With the destruction of theCamera Apostolica during thesack of Rome (1527), the capital for writing masters moved to Southern France. By 1600, the Italic Cursiva began to be replaced by a technological refinement, the Italic Chancery Circumflessa, which in turn fathered the Rhonde and later EnglishRoundhand.[50]
In England,Ayres and Banson popularized the Round Hand while Snell is noted for his reaction to them, and warnings of restraint and proportionality. Still Edward Crocker began publishing his copybooks 40 years before the aforementioned.[50][clarification needed]
Other European styles use the same tools and practices but differ by character set and stylistic preferences.
While West Slavic languages use Latin scripts, East Slavic languages have a different history and consequently useCyrillic script, having evolved from the 10th century to today.
Unlike a typeface, handwritten calligraphy is characterised by irregularity in the characters which vary in size, shape, style, and color, producing a distinct aesthetic value, although it may also make the content more difficult to decode for some readers. As withChinese orIslamic calligraphy, Western calligraphic script employed the use of strict rules and shapes. Quality writing had a rhythm and regularity to the letters, with a "geometrical" order of the lines on the page. Each character had, and often still has, a precise stroke order.
Unique features of sacredWestern calligraphy include the illumination of the first letter of each book or chapter in medieval times. A decorative "carpet page" may precede the literature, filled with ornate, geometrical depictions of bold-hued animals. TheLindisfarne Gospels (715–720 CE) are an early example.[51] Many of the themes and variations of today's contemporary Western calligraphy are found in the pages ofThe Saint John's Bible. A particularly modern example isTimothy Botts' illustrated edition of the Bible, with 360 calligraphic images as well as a calligraphytypeface.[52]
Islamic calligraphy[a] has evolved alongsideIslam and theArabic language. As it is based on Arabic letters, some call it "Arabic calligraphy". However the term "Islamic calligraphy" is a more appropriate term, as it comprises all works of calligraphy by Muslim calligraphers of different national cultures, such asPersian orOttoman calligraphy, fromAl-Andalus in medievalSpain to China.
Islamic calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art (Arabesque) on the walls and ceilings ofmosques, as well as on manuscript pages or other materials. Contemporary artists in theIslamic world may draw on the heritage of calligraphy to create modern calligraphic inscriptions, likecorporate logos or abstractions.
Instead of recalling something related to the spoken word, calligraphy forMuslims is a visible expression of the highest art of all, the art of thespiritual world. Calligraphy has arguably become the most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims with the religion of Islam. TheQur'an has played an important role in the development and evolution of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic alphabet. Proverbs and passages from the Qur'an continue to be sources for Islamic calligraphy.
During theOttoman civilization, Islamic calligraphy attained special prominence. The city of Istanbul is an open exhibition hall for many kinds and varieties of calligraphy, from inscriptions in mosques to fountains, schools, houses, etc.[53]
Clay cylinder with cuneiform script of King Nabonidus, Mesopotamia, British Museum, London, England, UK.
Ancient Persian script was invented by about 600–500 BCE to provide monument inscriptions for theAchaemenid kings.[citation needed] These scripts consisted of horizontal, vertical, and diagonal nail-shape letters, which is why it is calledcuneiform script (lit. "script of nails") (khat-e-mikhi) inPersian.[relevant?] Centuries later, other scripts such as "Pahlavi" and "Avestan" scripts were used in ancient Persia. Pahlavi was aMiddle Persian script developed from the Aramaic script and became the official script of theSassanian Empire (224–651 CE).[54]
TheNasta'liq style is the most popular contemporary style among classical Persian calligraphy scripts;[citation needed] Persian calligraphers call it the "bride of calligraphy scripts." It has just been fine-tuned during the past seven centuries.[clarification needed] It has strict rules for graphical shape of the letters and for combination of the letters, words, and composition of the whole calligraphy piece.[citation needed]
After the rise ofprinting in the 15th century, the production of illuminated manuscripts began to decline.[43][55][full citation needed] However, this did not mean the end of calligraphy.[43][4][56] At the beginning of the 16th century, a clear distinction between handwriting and more elaborate forms of lettering and script began to make its way into manuscripts and books.
This inspired Johnston's interest in the art of calligraphy with a broad-edged pen. He began a teaching course in calligraphy at the Central School inSouthampton Row, London from September 1899, where he influenced the typeface designer and sculptorEric Gill. He was commissioned byFrank Pick to design anew typeface for theLondon Underground, still used today (with minor modifications).[60]
He has been credited for single-handedly reviving the art of modernpenmanship and lettering through his books and teachings[by whom?] – his handbook on the subject,Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering (1906) was particularly influential on a generation of British typographers and calligraphers, includingGraily Hewitt,Stanley Morison,Eric Gill,Alfred Fairbank and Anna Simons. Johnston also devised the crafted round calligraphic handwriting style, written with a broad pen, known today as theFoundational hand. Johnston initially taught his students an uncial hand using a flat pen angle, but later taught his hand using a slanted pen angle.[61] He first referred to this hand as "Foundational Hand" in his 1909 publication,Manuscript & Inscription Letters for Schools and Classes and for the Use of Craftsmen.[62]
Hewitt has received both criticism[63][full citation needed] and support[64] in his rendering ofCennino Cennini's medieval gesso recipes.[65]Donald Jackson, a British calligrapher, has sourced his gesso recipes from earlier centuries, a number of which are not presently in English translation.[66] Graily Hewitt created the patent announcing the award toPrince Philip of the title of Duke of Edinburgh on November 19, 1947, the day before his marriage to Queen Elizabeth.[67][clarification needed]
Anna Simons, Johnston's pupil, helped create interest in calligraphy in Germany with her German translation ofWriting and Illuminating, and Lettering in 1910.[57][dead link][better source needed] Austrian Rudolf Larisch, a teacher of lettering at the Vienna School of Art, published six lettering books that influenced German-speaking calligraphers. Because German-speaking countries had not abandoned the Gothic hand in printing, Gothic also had an effect on their styles.
Rudolf Koch was a friend and younger contemporary of Larisch. Koch's books, type designs, and teaching impacted calligraphy in northern Europe, and later, the United States. Larisch and Koch taught many European calligraphers, notablyKarlgeorg Hoefer andHermann Zapf.[68]
Contemporary typefaces used by computers, from word processors likeMicrosoft Word orApple Pages to professional design software packages likeAdobe InDesign, find their roots in both the calligraphy of the past as well as several professional typeface designers.[1][4][69]
Selected images
Banknote motif: number 5 against a circular panel of lace-like lathe work with a scalloped edge
Chinese soldier in calligraphy competition
Edward Johnston, a famous British calligrapher, at work in 1902
^abKeightley, David (1978).Sources of Shang History: The Oracle Bone Inscriptions of Bronze Age China. Berkeley, CA, Los Angeles, CA, London: University of california Press.ISBN0-520-05455-5.
^Fazzioli, Edoardo (1987).Chinese Calligraphy: From Pictograph to Ideogram: The History Of 214 Essential Chinese/Japanese Characters. Calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko. New York:Abbeville Press. p. 13.ISBN978-0-89659-774-7.And so the first Chinese dictionary was born, theSān Chāng, containing 3,300 characters
^康熙字典 [Kangxi Zidian] (in Chinese). 1716. p. 41. See, for example, the radicals卩,厂, or广. The 2007 common shape for those characters does not clearly show the stroke order, but old versions, visible on p. 41, clearly allow the stroke order to be determined.
^Salomon, Richard (1998).Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0195099843.
^Mitter, Partha (2001).Indian Art. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 100.ISBN9780192842213.
^Knight, Stan (1998).Historical scripts: from Classical Times to the Renaissance (2nd, Corrected ed.). New Castle, Del: Oak Knoll Press. pp. 9–10.ISBN9781884718564.
^Trinity College Library Dublin 2006; Walther & Wolf 2005; Brown & Lovett 1999: 40; Backhouse 1981[full citation needed]
^Henning, W. E. (2002). Melzer, P. (ed.).An Elegant Hand: The Golden Age of American Penmanship and Calligraphy. New Castle, Delaware: Oak Knoll Press.ISBN978-1-58456-067-8.
Benson, John Howard; Carrey, Arthur Graham (1940).The Elements of Lettering. Newport, Rhode Island: John Stevens.
Benson, John Howard (1955).The First Writing Book: an English translation & facsimile text of Arrighi's Operina, the first Manual of the chancery hand. London, England: Oxford University Press.
de Hamel, C. (2001a).The Book: A History of the Bible. Phaidon Press.
Diringer, David (1968).The Alphabet: A Key to the History of Mankind. Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). London, England: Hutchinson & Company. p. 441.
Fairbank, Alfred (1975).Augustino Da Siena, the 1568 edition of his writing book in facsimile. London, England: The Merrion Press.ISBN0-87923-128-9.
Fraser, M.; Kwiatowski, W. (2006).Ink and Gold: Islamic Calligraphy. London, England: Sam Fogg Limited.
Gaze, Tim; Jacobson, Michael, eds. (2013).An Anthology of Asemic Handwriting. Brooklyn, New York: Punctum Books.ISBN978-90-817091-7-0.OCLC1100489411.
Kosack, Wolfgang (2014).Islamische Schriftkunst des Kufischen: geometrisches Kufi in 593 Schriftbeispielen (in German). Basel, Switzerland: Verlag Christoph Brunner.ISBN978-3-906206-10-3.OCLC894692503.
Johnston, Edward (1909). "Plate 6".Manuscript & Inscription Letters: For schools and classes and for the use of craftsmen. San Vito Press & Double Elephant Press. 10th Impression
Marns, F. A. (2002).Various, copperplate and form. London, England.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Shepherd, Margaret (2013).Learn World Calligraphy: Discover African, Arabic, Chinese, Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Russian, Thai, Tibetan Calligraphy, and Beyond. Crown Publishing Group. p. 192.ISBN978-0-8230-8230-8.
Mediavilla, Claude (2006).Histoire de la calligraphie française (in French). Paris, France: Michel.ISBN978-2-226-17283-9.
Ogg, Oscar (1954).Three classics of Italian Calligraphy, an unabridged reissue of the writing books of Arrighi, Giovanni Antonio Tagliente & Palatino, with an introduction. New York, US: Dover Publications.
Osley, A. S., ed. (1965).Calligraphy and Paleography, Essays presented to Alfred Fairbank on his 70th birthday. New York: October House Incorporated.
Wolpe, Berthold (1959).A Newe Writing Booke of Copies, 1574: A facsimile of a unique Elisabethan Writing book in the Bodleian Library Oxford'. London, England: Lion and Unicorn Press.
Zapf, H. (2007).Alphabet Stories: A Chronicle of technical developments. Rochester, New York: Cary Graphic Arts Press.ISBN978-1-933360-22-5.
Keightley, David (1978).Sources of Shang History: The Oracle Bone Inscriptions of Bronze Age China. Berkeley, California; Los Angeles, California; London, England: University of california Press.ISBN0-520-05455-5.
French Renaissance Paleography This is a scholarly maintained site that presents over 100 carefully selected French manuscripts from 1300 to 1700, with tools to decipher and transcribe them.
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![Sample showing Nastaliq proportional rules (Persian and Urdu languages)[citation needed]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPersian_Nasta%25CA%25BFl%25C4%25ABq%2527s_proportions.jpg)
