Calligraphy (from Ancient Greekκαλλιγραφία (kalligraphía)'beautiful writing') is avisual art related towriting. It involves the design and execution oflettering with apen,ink brush, or other writing instruments.[1]: 17 Contemporary calligraphic practice is often defined as "the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious, and skillful manner".[1]: 18
InEast Asia and theIslamic world, where written scripts allow for greater interesting flexibility, calligraphy is considered a highly respected art form. Its visual form is often influenced by the meaning of the text or the individual words.[citation needed]
Modern Western calligraphy encompasses a wide range of styles, from functional inscriptions and designs, to fine-art pieces where the legibility of letters varies.[1][page needed] Classical calligraphy differs fromtype design and non-classicalhand-lettering, though some calligraphers may practice both.[2][3][4][5]
The principal tools for a calligrapher are thepen and thebrush. The pens used in calligraphy can havenibs that may be flat, round, or pointed.[8][9][10] For decorative purposes, multi-nib pens (steel brushes) can be used. Works have also been created withfelt-tip andballpoint pens; however, these do not produce angled lines. There are certain styles of calligraphy, such asGothic script, that require a stub nib pen.
The ink used for writing is usually water-based and is much lessviscous than the oil-based ink used in printing. Certain specialty paper with high ink absorption and constant texture enables cleaner lines,[11] althoughparchment orvellum is often used, as a knife can be used to erase imperfections and alight-box is not needed to allow lines to be visible through it. Normally, light boxes and templates are used to achieve straight lines without pencil markings detracting from the work. Ruled paper, either for a light box or direct use, is most often ruled every quarter or half an inch, although inch spaces are occasionally used. This is the case withUncial script (hence the name "litterea unciales", which roughly translates to 'inch high letters'[12]), and college-ruled paper often acts as a guideline as well.[13]
Inancient China, the oldest known Chinese characters areoracle bone script (甲骨文), carved on oxscapulae and tortoiseplastrons, as the rulers in theShang dynasty carved pits on such animals' bones and then baked them to gain auspice of military affairs, agricultural harvest, or even procreation and weather, as a form ofscapulimancy.[16] During thedivination ceremony, a heat source was applied to the carved pits, causing the bones to crack. The resulting cracks were interpreted and then inscribed directly on the shell or bone, sometimes after the characters had been written with a brush,[16][further explanation needed] after which they were interpreted, the interpretation being carved directly on the shell or bone, sometimes after the characters were written with a brush.[16] With the development of thebronzeware script (jīn wén) andlarge seal script (dà zhuàn)[17] "cursive" signs continued[further explanation needed].Mao Gong ding is one of the most famous examples of bronzeware script in Chinese calligraphic history. It contains 500 inscribed characters, the largest number of bronze inscriptions discovered to date.[clarification needed][18] Moreover, each archaic kingdom of current China had its own set of characters.
InImperial China, the graphs on oldsteles – some dating from 200 BCE, and in thesmall seal script (小篆xiǎo zhuàn) style – have been preserved and can be viewed in museums even today.
About 220 BCE, the emperorQin Shi Huang, the first to conquer the entire Chinese basin, imposed several reforms, among themLi Si's character unification, which created a set of 3300 standardized small seal characters.[19] Despite the fact that the main writing implement of the time was already the brush, few papers survive from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles.
Theclerical script (隸書/隸书) (lì shū) which was more regularized, and in some ways similar to modern text, was also authorised under Qin Shi Huang.[20]
Between clerical script and traditional regular script, there is another transitional type of calligraphic work calledWei Bei. It started during theNorth and South dynasties (420 to 589 CE) and ended before theTang dynasty (618–907).[21]
The traditionalregular script (kǎi shū), still in use today, and largely finalized byZhong You (鐘繇, 151–230) and his followers, is even more regularized. Its spread was encouraged byEmperor Mingzong of Later Tang (926–933), who ordered theprinting of the classics using new wooden blocks in kaishu[further explanation needed]. Printing technologies here allowed a shape stabilization. The kaishu shape of characters 1000 years ago was mostly similar to that at the end of Imperial China;[citation needed] However, small changes to the characters have been made. For example the shape of广 has changed from the version in theKangxi Dictionary of 1716 to the version found in modern books. TheKangxi and current shapes have tiny differences, while stroke order remains the same, according to the old style.[22]
Styles which did not survive includebāfēnshū, a mix of 80% small seal script and 20% clerical script[clarification needed]. Somevariant Chinese characters were unorthodox or locally used for centuries. They were generally understood but always rejected in official texts. Some of these unorthodox variants, in addition to some newly created characters, compose thesimplified Chinese character set.[citation needed]
Many different parameters influence the final result of a calligrapher's work. Physical parameters include the shape, size, stretch, andhair type of the ink brush; the color, color density and water density of the ink; as well as the paper's water absorption speed and surface texture. The calligrapher's technique also influences the result, as the look of finished characters is affected by the amount of ink and water the brush absorbs and by the brush's pressure, angle, and direction. Changing these variables produces thinner or bolder strokes, and smooth or toothed borders. Eventually, the speed, accelerations and decelerations of a skilled calligrapher's movements aim to give "spirit" to the characters, greatly influencing their final shapes.
Cursive styles such asxíngshū (行書/行书)(semi-cursive or running script) andcǎoshū (草書/草书)(cursive, rough script, or grass script) are less constrained and faster, where movements made by the writing implement are more visible. These styles' stroke orders vary more, sometimes creating radically different forms. They are descended from the clerical script, in the same time as the regular script (Han dynasty), butxíngshū andcǎoshū were used for personal notes only, and never used as a standard. Thecǎoshū style was highly appreciated duringEmperor Wu of Han's reign (140–187 CE).[citation needed]
Examples of modern printed styles areSong from theSong dynasty'sprinting press, andsans-serif. These are not considered traditional styles, and are normally not written.
Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese calligraphy were each greatly influenced by Chinese calligraphy. Calligraphy has influenced most major art styles in East Asia, includingink and wash painting, a style ofChinese,Japanese, andKorean painting based entirely on calligraphy and which uses similar tools and techniques.
Japanese, Koreans and Vietnamese have also developed their own specific sensibilities and styles of calligraphy while incorporating Chinese influences.
Japanese calligraphy goes out of the set ofCJK strokes to also include local alphabets such ashiragana andkatakana, with specific problematics such as new curves and moves, and specific materials (Japanese paper,washi和紙, and Japanese ink).[24]
Vietnamese calligraphy is calledthư pháp (書法, literally "the way of letters or words") and is based onChữ Nôm andChữ Hán, the historical Vietnamese writing system rooted in the impact of Chinese characters and replaced with the Latin alphabet as a result ofFrench colonial influence. Calligraphic traditions maintaining the historical employment of Han characters continue to be preserved in modern Vietnamese calligraphy.[25]
Tibetan calligraphy is central toTibetan culture. The script is derived fromIndic scripts. The nobles of Tibet, such as the HighLamas and inhabitants of thePotala Palace, were often capable calligraphers.Tibet has been a center ofBuddhism for several centuries, with said religion placing a high significance on the written word. This does not provide for a large body ofsecular pieces, although they do exist (but are usually related in some way to Tibetan Buddhism). Almost all high religious writing involved calligraphy, including letters sent by theDalai Lama and other religious and secular authorities. Calligraphy is particularly evident on theirprayer wheels, although this calligraphy was forged rather than scribed, much like Arab and Roman calligraphy is often found on buildings. Although originally done with a reed, Tibetan calligraphers now use chisel tipped pens and markers as well.[citation needed]
The Philippines has numerous ancient and indigenous scripts collectively calledSuyat scripts. Various ethno-linguistic groups in the Philippines prior to Spanish colonization in the 16th century and up to the independence era in the 21st century have used the scripts with various media. By the end of the colonial period, only four suyat scripts had survived and remained in everyday use by certain communities. These four scripts areHanunó'o/Hanunoo of the Hanuno'oMangyan people,Buhid/Build of the BuhidMangyan people,Tagbanwa script of theTagbanwa people, andPalaw'an/Pala'wan of thePalaw'an people. All four scripts were inscribed in theUNESCOMemory of the World international register, under the namePhilippine Paleographs (Hanunoo, Build, Tagbanua and Pala’wan), in 1999.[26]
Due to dissent from colonialism, many artists and cultural experts have revived the usage of suyat scripts that went extinct due their replacement by the Spanish-introduced Latin alphabet. The scripts being revived include theKulitan script of theKapampangan people, thebadlit script of variousVisayan ethnic groups, theIniskaya script of theEskaya people, theBaybayin script of theTagalog people, and theKur-itan script of theIlocano people, among many others.[27][28][29] Due to the diversity of suyat scripts, all calligraphy written in suyat script are collectively called Filipino suyat calligraphy, although each are distinct from each other.[30][31] Calligraphy using the Western alphabet and the Arabic alphabet are also prevalent in the Philippines due to its colonial past. However, the Western and Arabic alphabets are not considered suyat, and therefore such calligraphy is not considered suyat calligraphy.[32][33]
The preservation ofreligious texts is the most common purpose for Indian calligraphy.Monastic Buddhist communities had members trained in calligraphy and shared responsibility for duplicating sacred scriptures.[34]Jaina traders incorporated illustrated manuscripts celebrating Jaina saints. These manuscripts were produced using inexpensive material, like palm leaves and birch, with fine calligraphy.[35]
Budha inSamrup Rachna Calligraphy by Syed Mohammed Anwer
Ethiopian (Abyssinian) calligraphy began with theGe'ez script, which replacedEpigraphic South Arabian in theKingdom of Aksum, which was developed specifically forEthiopian Semitic languages. In those languages that use it, such asAmharic andTigrinya, the script is calledFidäl, which means 'script' or 'alphabet'. The Epigraphic South Arabian letters were used for a few inscriptions into the 8th century, though not in any South Arabian language sinceDʿmt.
Early inscriptions in Ge'ez and Ge'ez script are dated to as early as the 5th century BCE, with a sort of proto-Ge'ez written in ESA since the 9th century BCE. Ge'ez literature begins with the Christianization of Ethiopia (and the civilization of Axum) in the 4th century, during the reign ofEzana of Axum.
The Ge'ez script is read from left to right and has been adapted to write other languages, usually ones that are also Semitic. The most widespread use is forAmharic inEthiopia andTigrinya inEritrea and Ethiopia.[citation needed]
Maya calligraphy was expressed viaMaya glyphs; modern Maya calligraphy is mainly used onseals and monuments in theYucatán Peninsula in Mexico. Maya glyphs are rarely used in government offices; however, inCampeche,Yucatán andQuintana Roo, calligraphy inMaya languages is written in Latin script rather than Maya glyphs. Some commercial companies in southern Mexico use Maya glyphs as symbols of their business. Some community associations and modern Maya brotherhoods use Maya glyphs as symbols of their groups.[citation needed]
Most of the archaeological sites in Mexico such asChichen Itza, Labna,Uxmal,Edzna,Calakmul, etc. have glyphs in their structures. Carved stone monuments known asstele are common sources of ancient Maya calligraphy.[36][37]
Calligraphy in aLatinBible of 1407 on display inMalmesbury Abbey, England. This Bible was hand-written in Belgium, by Gerard Brils, for reading aloud in amonastery.
TheLatin alphabet appeared about 600 BCE inancient Rome, and by the first century CE it had developed intoRoman imperial capitals carved on stones,rustic capitals painted on walls, andRoman cursive for daily use. In the second and third centuries theuncial lettering style developed. As writing withdrew to monasteries, uncial script was found more suitable for copying theBible and other religious texts. It was the monasteries which preserved calligraphic traditions during the fourth and fifth centuries, when the Roman Empire fell and Europe entered theearly Middle Ages.[38]
Christian churches promoted the development of writing through the prolific copying of the Bible, theBreviary, and other sacred texts.[40] Two distinct styles of writing known as uncial and half-uncial (from the Latinuncia, or "inch") developed from a variety of Romanbookhands.[41] The 7th–9th centuries in northern Europe were the heyday of Celtic illuminated manuscripts, such as the Book of Durrow,Lindisfarne Gospels and theBook of Kells.[42]
Charlemagne's devotion to improved scholarship resulted in recruiting "a crowd of scribes", according toAlcuin, the Abbot ofYork.[43] Alcuin developed the style known as the Caroline orCarolingian minuscule. The first manuscript in thishand was the Godescalc Evangelistary (finished 783) – a Gospel book written by the scribe Godescalc.[44] Carolingian remains the one progenitor hand from which modern booktype descends.[45]
In the eleventh century, the Caroline evolved into theblackletter ("Gothic") script, which was more compact and made it possible to fit more text on a page.[46]: 72 The Gothic calligraphy styles became dominant throughout Europe and, in 1454, whenJohannes Gutenberg developed the first printing press in Mainz, Germany, the Gothic style was adopted for its use, making it the firsttypeface.[46]: 141
In the 15th century, the rediscovery of old Carolingian texts encouraged the creation of thehumanist minuscule orlittera antiqua. The 17th century saw theBatarde script from France, and the 18th century saw theEnglish script spread across Europe and world through their books.
In the mid-1600s French officials, flooded with documents written in various hands and varied levels of skill, complained that many such documents were beyond their ability to decipher. The Office of the Financier thereupon restricted all legal documents to three hands, namely the Coulee, the Rhonde, (known asRound hand in English) and a Speed Hand sometimes called theBastarda.[47]
While there were many great French masters at the time, the most influential in proposing these hands was Louis Barbedor, who publishedLes Ecritures Financière Et Italienne Bastarde Dans Leur Naturelc. 1650.[47]
With the destruction of theCamera Apostolica during thesack of Rome (1527), the capital for writing masters moved to Southern France. By 1600, the Italic Cursiva began to be replaced by a technological refinement, the Italic Chancery Circumflessa, which in turn fathered the Rhonde and later EnglishRoundhand.[47]
In England,Ayres and Banson popularized the Round Hand while Snell is noted for his reaction to them, and warnings of restraint and proportionality. Still Edward Crocker began publishing his copybooks 40 years before the aforementioned.[47][clarification needed]
Other European styles use the same tools and practices, but differ by character set and stylistic preferences.
For Slavonic lettering, the history of theSlavonic and consequentlyRussianwriting systems differs fundamentally from that of theLatin language, having evolved from the 10th century to today.
Unlike a typeface, handwritten calligraphy is characterised by irregularity in the characters which vary in size, shape, style, and color, producing a distinct aesthetic value, although it may also make the content more difficult to decode for some readers. As withChinese orIslamic calligraphy, Western calligraphic script employed the use of strict rules and shapes. Quality writing had a rhythm and regularity to the letters, with a "geometrical" order of the lines on the page. Each character had, and often still has, a precisestroke order.
SacredWestern calligraphy has some unique features, such as the illumination of the first letter of each book or chapter in medieval times. A decorative "carpet page" may precede the literature, filled with ornate, geometrical depictions of bold-hued animals. TheLindisfarne Gospels (715–720 CE) are an early example.[48] Many of the themes and variations of today's contemporary Western calligraphy are found in the pages ofThe Saint John's Bible. A particularly modern example isTimothy Botts' illustrated edition of the Bible, with 360 calligraphic images as well as a calligraphytypeface.[49]
Islamic calligraphy[a] has evolved alongsideIslam and theArabic language. As it is based on Arabic letters, some call it "Arabic calligraphy". However the term "Islamic calligraphy" is a more appropriate term as it comprises all works of calligraphy by Muslim calligraphers of different national cultures, such asPersian orOttoman calligraphy, fromAl-Andalus in medievalSpain to China.
Islamic calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art (Arabesque) on the walls and ceilings ofmosques as well as on manuscript pages or other materials. Contemporary artists in theIslamic world may draw on the heritage of calligraphy to create modern calligraphic inscriptions, likecorporate logos, or abstractions.
Instead of recalling something related to the spoken word, calligraphy forMuslims is a visible expression of the highest art of all, the art of thespiritual world. Calligraphy has arguably become the most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims with the religion of Islam. TheQur'an has played an important role in the development and evolution of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic alphabet. Proverbs and passages from the Qur'an continue to be sources for Islamic calligraphy.
During theOttoman civilization, Islamic calligraphy attained special prominence. The city of Istanbul is an open exhibition hall for all kinds and varieties of calligraphy, from inscriptions in mosques to fountains, schools, houses, etc.[50]
It is believed[by whom?] thatancient Persian script was invented by about 600–500 BCE to provide monument inscriptions for theAchaemenid kings.[citation needed] These scripts consisted of horizontal, vertical, and diagonal nail-shape letters, which is why it is calledcuneiform script (lit. "script of nails") (khat-e-mikhi) inPersian.[relevant?] Centuries later, other scripts such as "Pahlavi" and "Avestan" scripts were used in ancient Persia. Pahlavi was a middle Persian script developed from the Aramaic script and became the official script of the Sassanian empire (224–651 CE).[51]
TheNasta'liq style is the most popular contemporary style among classical Persian calligraphy scripts;[citation needed] Persian calligraphers call it the "bride of calligraphy scripts." This calligraphy style has been based on such a rigid structure that it has changed very little sinceMir Ali Tabrizi had found the optimum composition of the letters and graphical rules.[citation needed][opinion] It has just been fine-tuned during the past seven centuries.[clarification needed] It has very strict rules for graphical shape of the letters and for combination of the letters, words, and composition of the whole calligraphy piece.[citation needed]
Afterprinting became ubiquitous from the 15th century onward, the production of illuminated manuscripts began to decline.[40][52][full citation needed] However, the rise of printing did not mean the end of calligraphy.[40][4][53] A clear distinction between handwriting and more elaborate forms of lettering and script began to make its way into manuscripts and books at the beginning of the 16th century.
This triggered Johnston's interest in the art of calligraphy with the use of a broad-edged pen. He began a teaching course in calligraphy at the Central School inSouthampton Row, London from September 1899, where he influenced the typeface designer and sculptorEric Gill. He was commissioned byFrank Pick to design anew typeface forLondon Underground, still used today (with minor modifications).[57]
He has been credited for single-handedly reviving the art of modernpenmanship and lettering through his books and teachings[by whom?] – his handbook on the subject,Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering (1906) was particularly influential on a generation of British typographers and calligraphers, includingGraily Hewitt,Stanley Morison,Eric Gill,Alfred Fairbank and Anna Simons. Johnston also devised the crafted round calligraphic handwriting style, written with a broad pen, known today as theFoundational hand. Johnston initially taught his students an uncial hand using a flat pen angle, but later taught his hand using a slanted pen angle.[58] He first referred to this hand as "Foundational Hand" in his 1909 publication,Manuscript & Inscription Letters for Schools and Classes and for the Use of Craftsmen.[59]
Graily Hewitt taught at theCentral School of Arts and Crafts and published together with Johnston throughout the early part of the century. Hewitt was central[citation needed] to the revival ofgilding in calligraphy, and his prolific output on type design also appeared between 1915 and 1943. He is attributed with the revival of gilding withgesso and gold leaf onvellum. Hewitt helped found theSociety of Scribes & Illuminators (SSI) in 1921, probably the world's foremost calligraphy society.[citation needed]
Hewitt has received both criticism[60][full citation needed] and support[61] in his rendering ofCennino Cennini's medieval gesso recipes.[62]Donald Jackson, a British calligrapher, has sourced his gesso recipes from earlier centuries, a number of which are not presently in English translation.[63] Graily Hewitt created the patent announcing the award toPrince Philip of the title of Duke of Edinburgh on November 19, 1947, the day before his marriage to Queen Elizabeth.[64][clarification needed]
Anna Simons, Johnston's pupil, was instrumental in sparking interest in calligraphy in Germany with her German translation ofWriting and Illuminating, and Lettering in 1910.[54][dead link][better source needed] Austrian Rudolf Larisch, a teacher of lettering at the Vienna School of Art, published six lettering books that greatly influenced German-speaking calligraphers. Because German-speaking countries had not abandoned the Gothic hand in printing, Gothic also had a powerful effect on their styles.
Rudolf Koch was a friend and younger contemporary of Larisch. Koch's books, type designs, and teaching made him one of the most influential calligraphers of the 20th century in northern Europe and later in the U.S. Larisch and Koch taught and inspired many European calligraphers, notablyKarlgeorg Hoefer andHermann Zapf.[65]
Contemporary typefaces used by computers, from word processors likeMicrosoft Word orApple Pages to professional design software packages likeAdobe InDesign, find their roots in both the calligraphy of the past as well as several professional typeface designers.[1][4][66]
Selected images
Banknote motif: number 5 against a circular panel of lace-like lathe work with a scalloped edge
Chinese soldier in calligraphy competition
Edward Johnston, a famous British calligrapher, at work in 1902
^abcKeightley, David (1978).Sources of Shang History: The Oracle Bone Inscriptions of Bronze Age China. Berkeley, CA, Los Angeles, CA, London: University of california Press.ISBN0-520-05455-5.
^Fazzioli, Edoardo (1987).Chinese Calligraphy: From Pictograph to Ideogram: The History Of 214 Essential Chinese/Japanese Characters. Calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko. New York:Abbeville Press. p. 13.ISBN978-0-89659-774-7.And so the first Chinese dictionary was born, theSān Chāng, containing 3,300 characters
^康熙字典 [Kangxi Zidian] (in Chinese). 1716. p. 41.. See, for example, the radicals卩,厂, or广. The 2007 common shape for those characters does not clearly show the stroke order, but old versions, visible on p. 41, clearly allow the stroke order to be determined.
^Salomon, Richard (1998).Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0195099843.
^Mitter, Partha (2001).Indian Art. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 100.ISBN9780192842213.
^Knight, Stan (1998).Historical scripts: from Classical Times to the Renaissance (2nd, Corrected ed.). New Castle, Del: Oak Knoll Press. pp. 9–10.ISBN9781884718564.
^Trinity College Library Dublin 2006; Walther & Wolf 2005; Brown & Lovett 1999: 40; Backhouse 1981[full citation needed]
^Henning, W.E. (2002). Melzer, P. (ed.).An Elegant Hand: The Golden Age of American Penmanship and Calligraphy. New Castle, Delaware: Oak Knoll Press.ISBN978-1-58456-067-8.
Benson, John Howard; Carrey, Arthur Graham (1940).The Elements of Lettering. Newport, Rhode Island: John Stevens.
Benson, John Howard (1955).The First Writing Book: an English translation & fascimile text of Arrighi's Operina, the first Manual of the chancery hand. London: Oxford University Press.
de Hamel, C. (2001a).The Book: A History of the Bible. Phaidon Press.
Diringer, David (1968).The Alphabet: A Key to the History of Mankind. Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). London: Hutchinson & Co. p. 441.
Fairbank, Alfred (1975).Augustino Da Siena, the 1568 edition of his writing book in fascimile. London: The Merrion Press.ISBN0-87923-128-9.
Fraser, M.; Kwiatowski, W. (2006).Ink and Gold: Islamic Calligraphy. London: Sam Fogg Ltd.
Kosack, Wolfgang (2014).Islamische Schriftkunst des Kufischen: geometrisches Kufi in 593 Schriftbeispielen (in German). Basel: Verlag Christoph Brunner.ISBN978-3-906206-10-3.OCLC894692503.
Johnston, E. (1909). "Plate 6".Manuscript & Inscription Letters: For schools and classes and for the use of craftsmen. San Vito Press & Double Elephant Press. 10th Impression
Shepherd, Margaret (2013).Learn World Calligraphy: Discover African, Arabic, Chinese, Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Russian, Thai, Tibetan Calligraphy, and Beyond. Crown Publishing Group. p. 192.ISBN978-0-8230-8230-8.
Mediavilla, Claude (2006).Histoire de la calligraphie française (in French). Paris: Michel.ISBN978-2-226-17283-9.
Ogg, Oscar (1954).Three classics of Italian Calligraphy, an unabridged reissue of the writing books of Arrighi, Giovanni Antonio Tagliente & Palatino, with an introduction. New York, US: Dover Publications.
Osley, A. S., ed. (1965).Calligraphy and Paleography, Essays presented to Alfred Fairbank on his 70th birthday. New York: October House Inc.
Wolpe, Berthold (1959).A Newe Writing Booke of Copies, 1574: A fascimile of a unique Elisabethan Writing book in the Bodleian Library Oxford'. London: Lion and Unicorn Press.
Zapf, H. (2007).Alphabet Stories: A Chronicle of technical developments. Rochester, NY: Cary Graphic Arts Press.ISBN978-1-933360-22-5.
Keightley, David (1978).Sources of Shang History: The Oracle Bone Inscriptions of Bronze Age China. Berkeley, CA, Los Angeles, CA, London: University of california Press.ISBN0-520-05455-5.
French Renaissance Paleography This is a scholarly maintained site that presents over 100 carefully selected French manuscripts from 1300 to 1700, with tools to decipher and transcribe them.
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![Sample showing Nastaliq proportional rules (Persian and Urdu languages)[citation needed]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPersian_Nasta%25CA%25BFl%25C4%25ABq%2527s_proportions.jpg)
