YYC Calgary Airport | |||||||||||||||||||
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.jpg) Aerial view of the airport in 2022 | |||||||||||||||||||
| Summary | |||||||||||||||||||
| Airport type | Public | ||||||||||||||||||
| Owner | Transport Canada | ||||||||||||||||||
| Operator | Calgary Airport Authority | ||||||||||||||||||
| Opened | 1938; 87 years ago (1938) | ||||||||||||||||||
| Hub for | |||||||||||||||||||
| Focus city for | |||||||||||||||||||
| Operating base for | |||||||||||||||||||
| Time zone | MST (UTC−07:00) | ||||||||||||||||||
| • Summer (DST) | MDT (UTC−06:00) | ||||||||||||||||||
| Elevation AMSL | 3,606 ft / 1,099 m | ||||||||||||||||||
| Coordinates | 51°06′50″N114°01′13″W / 51.11389°N 114.02028°W /51.11389; -114.02028[2] | ||||||||||||||||||
| Public transit access | Calgary Transit 300 100 | ||||||||||||||||||
| Website | www | ||||||||||||||||||
| Map | |||||||||||||||||||
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| Runways | |||||||||||||||||||
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| Statistics (2024) | |||||||||||||||||||
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| Sources:Canada Flight Supplement[2] AIP Canada Supplement[3] Environment Canada[4][5] | |||||||||||||||||||
Calgary International Airport (IATA:YYC,ICAO:CYYC), branded asYYC Calgary Airport[6], is aninternational airport that serves the city ofCalgary,Alberta, Canada. It is located approximately 17 kilometres (11 mi) northeast of downtown and covers an area of 20.82 square kilometres (8.04 sq mi; 5,144 acres; 2,082 ha).[7] With 18.9 million passengers in 2024[8] and 202,497 aircraft movements in 2023,[9] Calgary International is the busiest airport in Alberta and thefourth-busiest in Canada by both passenger traffic and aircraft movements. This airport is served by the Calgary International Airport Emergency Response Service foraircraft rescue and firefighting protection. The region's petroleum and tourism industries (including proximity toBanff National Park) have helped foster growth at the airport, which has nonstop flights to an array of destinations in North and Central America, Europe, and Asia. Calgary serves as the headquarters and primaryhub forWestJet.[10][11] It is also a focus city forAir Canada.[12][better source needed]
Built in the late 1930s, the site has since grown to house: 71 gates at minimum (depending on airplane type), three runways[3] and two terminal buildings with six concourses for passengers (Gates A1-6, A12-24, B31-40, C50-65, D70-79 and E80-97), warehouses for cargo handling, and other infrastructure. The Calgary Airport Authority operates the property while paying rent to the federal government. Close to the airport are theDeerfoot Trail andStoney Trail freeways for transport into the city and surrounding area, andpublic transit also serves the airport.
The first airport to serve Calgary opened in 1914, in the neighbourhood ofBowness. It occupied one-square kilometre (0.39 sq mi) and consisted of a hut and a grass runway.[13][14] The site is now the location of a community centre (The Landing)[15] as well as Bowness High School and Bowglen Park.[citation needed]
Operations shifted to a new airport southwest of the city in 1928, named Old Banff Coach Road Airport (51°02′55.7″N114°09′09.8″W / 51.048806°N 114.152722°W /51.048806; -114.152722).[16] However, issues withturbulence in the area prompted another airfield to be built the following year in the neighbourhood ofRenfrew known as theCalgary Municipal Airport[14] orStanley Jones Airport.[17] The local airline Renfew Air Service constructed the Rutledge Hangar at the Renfrew site (6th Street and Regal Crescent) in 1929,[17] alamella arch structure composed ofDouglas Fir planks on a reinforced concrete base. The Renfew Air Service folded in November 1931 as a result of theGreat Depression,[17] and ownership of the Rutledge Hangar was taken over by the Edmonton Credit Corporation who subsequently lease the hangar to the City of Calgary. TheRCAF used the airport in the 1940s. The Rutledge Hangar remains standing at the original Renfew site by Boys and Girls Club of Calgary and was designated anAlberta Provincial Historic Resource on 5 May 2003.[17]
As the City of Calgary grew to surround the Renfrew airport site the municipal government decided to relocate the airport to a new location. The city purchased an area of land north of Calgary in 1938 for about $31,000; and remains the site of Calgary's current airport. The city came to an agreement withTrans-Canada Air Lines to construct and lease a hangar on the site for $45,000 (equivalent to $918,117 in 2023),[18] and the federalDepartment of Transportation financed the construction of three runways and other improvements, the first of which opened on 25 September.[18][19] The new Calgary airfield was namedMcCall Field afterFirst World Warace and lifelong CalgarianFred McCall.[13][20]
As a result of Canada entering theSecond World War, the federal government assumed control of McCall Field in 1940, re-purposing it as a fuel and maintenance stop for aircraft involved in the war effort and later stationing theNo. 37 Service Flying Training School at the airfield from 22 October 1941 until its closure on 10 March 1944.[21] McCall Field continued to operate regular passenger flights during the Second World War.[13][14]
Following the end of the Second World War, the airport had been expanded to include additional hangars, four runways and other infrastructure.[13] The City of Calgary resumed management of McCall Field in 1946, repurposed the a hangar as a passenger terminal, and convinced the federal government to extend the airports 4,125 ft (1,257 m) east–west runway to 6,200 feet (1,900 m) in October 1949 at an estimated cost of $750,000 the construction required a 5 foot (1.5 m) excavation below grade to preventfrost heaving.[22] At the time of completion, McCall Field's east–west runway was the third-longest runway in Alberta behind the Calgary Airport's north–south runway and the runway atCFB Namao.[23][14]
The re-purposed military hangars did not meet the needs of the growing transportation needs of the city, and efforts were made by city officials to secure funding for a new passenger terminal. A new passenger terminal was constructed in 1956; its design originated in the 1950s as athesis project byProvincial Institute of Technology and Artarchitecture student Ken Bond, who later formed thearchitectural firm Clayton, Bond and Mogridge, which was awarded the contract for designing the new terminal.[24] The one-million dollar project featured an open publicconcourse, and ticketing offices for three airlines was dubbed one of the most modern air terminals in Canada when it opened on 2 June 1956.[24] A lavishopening ceremony was attended byfederal Transportation MinisterGeorge C. Marler,Lieutenant Governor of AlbertaJohn J. Bowlen, andMayorDonald Hugh Mackay, and a number of other dignitaries.[25] The festivities included anair show featuring anAvro Canada CF-100 Canuck.[24][13][14] Following construction of the new passenger terminal, McCall Field would see 110,984 passenger arrivals, 96,287 departures and nearly 1,000,000 pounds (450,000 kg) of cargo through the airport in 1957.[26]
In the 1960sCalgary City Council began lobbying the federal government to designate McCall Field as an "international airport", a status defined by the Department of Transportation. As a compromise on 6 April 1962, the federal government approved naming the airport terminal Calgary International Airport from Calgary Municipal Airport. However, MayorHarry Hays, localaldermen and residents continued to refer to the airport in general as McCall Field.[27] Calgary International Airport did not receive official "International" status from the federal government until 1969.[28] The first non-stoptransatlantic flights were scheduled byCanadian Pacific Airlines in 1961, connecting Calgary withAmsterdam Airport Schiphol, and more flights from Europe commenced the following year.[29]
Thejet age arrived shortly after the construction of Calgary's new passenger terminal. The terminal was not designed withjet aircraft in mind, and the airport's runways were not suitable for the larger and faster aircraft. In 1961 the airport replaced the diagonal runway with an 8,000 feet (2,400 m) runway capable of handling modern jet aircraft.[30] In 1963 the airport underwent a $4-million refurbishment which saw improved electronic landing aids, and the main north–south runway extended by 4,675 feet (1,425 m) to its present length of 12,675 feet (3,863 m).[31]
The City of Calgary was unable to afford the continued upgrades the Calgary Municipal Airport necessary to cope with the rising aircraft traffic.[13][14] The city proceeded to sell the Calgary Municipal Airport to the federal government in 1966 for $2 million, and the Department of Transportation proceeded to refurbish the runways shortly afterwards.[13]
The new passenger terminal constructed in 1956 proved to only temporarily meet the needs of the city, and was inadequate for expansion or facilitating jet aircraft servicing. Following the sale of the Calgary International Airport by the City of Calgary to the Government of Canada in 1966, plans were put in motion to build a new passenger terminal. The airport's sale came with a promise byFederal Transportation MinisterJack Pickersgill that the federal government would build a $20-million passenger terminal within five years; however, continued delays pushed completion of the terminal to 1977.[32]
Construction began on the new passenger terminal in 1972, construction would be delayed due to re-designs to meet increased air traffic needs, causing the price of the new terminal to grow well beyond the original $20-million figure.[32] Finally, on 12 October 1977, the new $130-million (equivalent to $1,006-million in 2023), 600,000 square feet (56,000 m2) terminal was opened byMayorRod Sykes, Provincial Transportation MinisterHugh Horner, and Federal Transportation MinisterOtto Lang two months before construction had completed.[33] Sykes was able to leverage his friendship withLord Mountbatten to convinceBritish Airways to have one of the newly introducedConcorde land in Calgary on the day,[33] and although the jet showed up a day late due to mechanical issues, it was still quite the coup for a city of less than half a million residents.[34] Among other festivities for the opening event included flyovers by aBoeing 747,Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, and theCanadian Air Force Snowbirds.[33] The 1977 passenger terminal remains the core of Calgary International Airport's domestic terminal to this day.[13][14]
TheJumbo Jet age arrived in Calgary with the newly introducedBoeing 747 landing for the first time in 1973, withWardair providing non-stop bi-weeklycharter service from Calgary toLondon.[35] Air Canada was not far behind, and began non-stop service to London using the 747 starting on 27 June 1974.[36] In April 1974, Calgary International Airport hostedCP Air's flight testing for the Boeing 747 afterairport firefighters went onstrike at bothVancouver International Airport andToronto Pearson Airport.[37]
In 1974 theGovernment of Alberta acquired ownership ofPacific Western Airlines, Canada's third largest airline at the time and moved thehead office and hub to Calgary.[38] The airline continued under provincial government ownership until 1983,[38] and later merged withCanadian Pacific Air Lines to formCanadian Airlines. Canadian Airlines maintained Calgary as the hub and headquarters for the airline[39] until it was acquired by Air Canada in 2001.[40]
In the early 1990s, the Government of Canada introduced theNational Airports Policy which moved towards privatization, liberalization and economic deregulation of air transportation, which included the formation of a local airport authority under the name Calgary Airport Authority in 1992 for the management, operation and development of the Calgary International Airport[41] under lease from the federal government.[13][42] The Calgary Airport Authority, incorporated in July 1990 is anon-share capital,not-for-profit corporation formed under the authority of Alberta'sRegional Airports Authorities Act.[43] The Calgary Airport Authority signed a long-term 60-year lease with an additional 20-yearoption, which was subsequently exercised in 2011.[43]
In 1992, Calgary International Airport opened a newair traffic control tower at the southern end of Aero Drive. The control tower when completed was 44 metres (144 ft) tall with 38 square metres (410 sq ft) of office room,[44] and was designed with the knowledge that it would not provide the necessary line of sight to the expanded east airfield.[45]
In February 1996,WestJet, which began as alow-cost carrier began operations with a base of operations at Calgary International, occupying an expanded area of the terminal.[14][46] The airline's first flight, aBoeing 737 departed Calgary International on route to Vancouver International Airport on 29 February 1996.[47]
During theSeptember 11, 2001 attacks 13 international flights destined for the United States were diverted to Calgary International Airport as part ofOperation Yellow Ribbon. The operation was a joint effort between NAV Canada and Transport Canada in communication with the U.S.Federal Aviation Administration, which facilitated thegrounding of potentially destructive air traffic.[48]
The Calgary Airport Authority began analyzing the facility's air capacity in the late 1990s, and found the airport could reach its maximum capacity as early as 2006. The Airport Authority andNAV Canada made a number of changes to airport operations in the 2000s to improve the efficiency and capacity of the facility, but by 2008, with a number of changes made, NAV Canada reported the airfield would begin to exceed its practical capacity.[49] The Calgary Airport Authority planned and under the "Airport Development Program", a major development program aimed at improving the capacity and quality of the airport, which included the construction of a new runway, air traffic control tower and passenger terminal.[citation needed]
On 25 May 2013, the newAir Traffic Control Tower opened at Calgary International Airport. The one-year, $25-million (equivalent to $32-million) project came in advance of the airport's new runway, and at 91 m (300 ft), the tower was the tallest free-standing control tower in Canada.[50] The airport's previous 50 m (165 ft) control tower was demolished in October 2014.[44]
The Calgary Airport Authority initiated the Parallel Runway Project, a $620-million (equivalent to $778-million) project to assess and construct a new runway, which led to the construction of the 14,000 feet (4,300 m) runway 17L/35R beginning in April 2011. Upon its completion on 28 June 2014, runway 17L/35R became thelongest runway in Canada.[51] During the construction of the runway, a $295-million (equivalent to $370-million), 620 m (2,030 ft), six-lane roadway tunnel was constructed underneath the runway to connectBarlow Trail to 36th Street N.E.[52] and now, to the edge of the city at the major freeway of Stoney Trail, Calgary's "Ring Road." The decision forCalgary City Council on whether to construct the tunnel while the runway was being constructed, or wait until a later date was a major issue during the2010 Calgary municipal election.[53]
The Airport Authority addressed cargo capacity through the construction of a 30,000 sq ft (2,800 m2) cargo facility in 2015 followed by a 100,000 sq ft (9,300 m2) facility constructed in 2016.[54]
The final stage of the Calgary Airport Authority's Airport Development Program was the construction of a new $1.6-billion (equivalent to $1.96-billion) international terminal.[14][55] Officially opened on 31 October 2016, the international terminal 186,000 square metres (2,000,000 sq ft) facility added 24 newaircraft gates, North America's first call-to-gate passenger boarding system,CATSA Plus enhanced passenger screening system, moving walkways and electric concourse connection tram system.[56] The international terminal was designed with several sustainable principles including 581geothermal wells for heating and cooling, and an annualrainwater capture capacity of 800,000 litres (180,000 imp gal).[54]
In October 2016, Transport Canada officially renamed Calgary International Airport to "YYC Calgary International Airport", affixing the "YYC"IATA code to the airport's name.[57]
In 2020, after several months of travel restrictions due to theCOVID-19 pandemic, the governments of Alberta and Canada announced a new program to enable certain travellers to enter Canada more easily. Canadian citizens and essential workers entering Canada at Calgary, as well as at theSweetgrass–Coutts Border Crossing, can be tested for thevirus and, if they test negative, will be allowed to quarantine for only 48 hours instead of the usual 14 days.[58]
On August 5, 2024, a hailstorm damaged the airport and numerous WestJet aircraft, but there were no injuries. While the other damaged areas of the airport were repaired promptly, Concourse B and its gates (gates 31-40) will be closed for at least 18 months, but this will not impact airport operations.[59][60]
.jpg)
The Calgary International Airport houses two passenger terminals, one fordomestic flights and the other for United States andinternational flights.
The four-storey Domestic Terminal was originally opened in 1977 and has undergone a number of renovations in the decades following. The ground level of the terminal serves as the arrivals area withbaggage claim and transportation facilities present. The second level of the terminal serves as the departures level and includesairport check-in,security and access to departure gates. The basement level of the airport contains utilities and tenant storage while the mezzanine level contains a food court, airline offices and the airport authority offices. The Domestic Terminal has four concourses: Concourses A1, A2, B, and C. All A, B and C gates are shared between domestic airlines such as Air Canada and Westjet (and their subsidiaries) predominantly, as well as Flair Airlines, Air North, Air Transat and Porter Airlines. Westjet primarily uses A gates, Air Canada flights primarily use C gates, and B gates are used by all airlines. Concourse A1 includes departure gates A1-A6 (used for WestJet regional non-jet flights); Concourse A2 includes gates A11-A24; Concourse B includes departure gates B31-B40; and Concourse C includes departure gates C50-C65.[61]
The International Terminal was originally opened on 31 October 2016 and consists of five levels; utilities and baggage processing in the basement. Arrivals meet and greet areas, Canada Customs and relevant infrastructure on the ground level with departure check-in, security, US customs and the international departures concourse being located on the second floor. The third level contains the USA departures concourse and finally, the mezzanine level contains the international departures lounges. The International Terminal includes gates 70 through 97 shared across two concourses: Concourse D for all flights to and from foreign countries except the US as well as domestic flights; and Concourse E for flights to and from the United States.[62] For the International Terminal, passengers travelling to the United States clear customs and immigration prior to departure at thepreclearance facility.[63][64]
The Domestic Terminal is connected to the International Terminal by a 620-metre walkway corridor and path for the YYC Link Passengers Shuttles; twenty ten-seat electric vehicles used to transport connecting passengers.[61][55]
WestJet, headquartered in Calgary and for which Calgary is the hub, has criticized the design of the international terminal, which opened in 2016. The airline'sCEO stated that the distance between the terminals was too long for connecting travellers and that YYC Link was insufficient to solve this problem. As a result, WestJet had to alter its schedules in order to allow additional time for passengers transiting through Calgary.[65][66] The Calgary Airport Authority responded that it did not see issues with the connections process, although it said passengers would need some time to adjust to the new facilities.[65]
Calgary International Airport consists of two north–south parallel runways and one intersecting runway. The parallel runways are 17R/35L (west) which is generally used for aircraft arriving and departing to the west, and 17L/35R (east) which is generally used for aircraft arriving and departing to the east. During the winter months in Calgary, coldarctic air will move in from the north which means aircraft will primarily depart and arrive on north-facing runways (35R and 35L), while the summer months with warm winds from the south, aircraft will primarily take-off and land on south-facing runways (17R and 17L). The diagonal runway 11/29 is generally used whencrosswinds are present, which commonly occurs in the summer when westerlyChinooks roll into Calgary, or when extreme wind conditions prohibit the use of the parallel runways.[citation needed] The former fourth and smallest runway, 08/26, was almost exclusively used bylight aircraft and thegeneral aviation sector, and as of October 3, 2024, has been officially redesignated as a taxiway.[67][3]
Calgary International Airport's three runways are as follows. with the following dimensions:[2][3]
The longest runway in Canada at the time of its 2014 opening, Runway 17L/35R was built to reduce congestion and better accommodate larger, heavier aircraft: the weight of such aircraft, combined with the low air density resulting from the airport's high elevation andtemperatures during the summer, means that a longer runway is necessary for take-off. Runway 17L/35R is also layered with concrete, a material more durable than the asphalt that composes the airport's other runways.[68][69]
The airport has allotted an extensive amount of area for cargo operations, including over 3,000,000 square feet (280,000 m2) of warehouse space. Freight airlines such asCargolux make regular trips to Europe, Asia, and other destinations.[70][71] In 2017, the Calgary airport handled a total of 147,000 tonnes (144,678 tons) of cargo.[clarification needed]
In 2011, Calgary International Airport received theAir Cargo World Award of Excellence for airports between 100,000 and 199,999 cargo tonnage, having the highest score for Canadian airports, and second highest for North-American airports.[72]
Calgary International Airport has twohotels located on site. The Calgary AirportMarriott In-Terminal Hotel is located in the international passenger terminal and that opened 1 September 2016.[73][better source needed] TheDelta Hotels by Marriott Calgary Airport In-Terminal is located near the domestic passenger terminal.[74]
At 91 metres (299 ft), the airport'sair traffic control tower was the tallest standalone control tower in Canada upon its opening in 2013; compared to the previous tower, it has space for more air traffic controllers and is situated closer to the centre of the airport, giving controllers better views of the airfield.[75] Meanwhile, the headquarters of WestJet and its subsidiaryWestJet Encore are located onsite.[76]
| Map of European passenger and cargo destinations |
|---|
| Map of Asian passenger destinations |
|---|
Destinations from Calgary International Airport Red = Year-round destination Green = Seasonal destination Blue = Future destination Yellow = Cargo-only destination |
In 2024, YYC Calgary International Airport remained Canada’s fourth-busiest airport, welcoming approximately 18.9 million passengers, a new milestone that surpassed its previous pre-pandemic record from 2019. In addition to the surge in passenger traffic, YYC also handled 5,217 cargo landings, compared with 4,946 landings in 2023, underscoring its importance as a key logistics hub in Western Canada.[116]
| Year | Passengers | Change | Cargo (kg) | Change | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2010 | 12,630,695 |  | 120,000 | | [117][43] |
| 2011 | 12,770,988 |  1.1% | 116,000 |  3.3% | [43] |
| 2012 | 13,641,339 | 6.8% | 119,000 | 2.6% | [118][119] |
| 2013 | 14,316,074 | 4.9% | 122,000 | 2.5% | [a][118][119] |
| 2014 | 15,261,108 | 6.6% | 128,710 | 5.5% | [118][119] |
| 2015 | 15,475,759 | 1.4% | 134,695 | 4.6% | [b][118][120] |
| 2016 | 15,680,616 | 1.3% | 137,255 | 1.7% | [120][121] |
| 2017 | 16,275,862 | 3.8% | 147,000 | 7.3% | [122][123] |
| 2018 | 17,343,402 | 6.6% | 146,000 | 0.7% | [124] |
| 2019 | 17,957,780 | 3.5% | 155,820 | 6.7% | [124] |
| 2020 | 5,675,483 | 68.40% | N/A | N/A | [124] |
| 2021 | 6,326,406 | 11.47% | N/A | N/A | [124] |
| 2022 | 14,452,059 | 128.4% | N/A | N/A | [124] |
| 2023 | 18,493,523 | 28.0% | N/A | N/A | [8] |
| 2024 | 18,895,684 | 2.2% | N/A | N/A | [8] |
| Rank | Destinations | Flights per week | Carriers |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Vancouver, British Columbia | 213 | Air Canada, Flair, WestJet |
| 2 | Toronto–Pearson, Ontario | 184 | Air Canada, Flair, Porter, WestJet |
| 3 | Edmonton, Alberta | 103 | Air Canada, Air North, WestJet |
| 4 | Winnipeg, Manitoba | 75 | Air Canada, Flair, WestJet |
| 5 | Kelowna, British Columbia | 62 | Air Canada, Flair, WestJet |
| 6 | Victoria, British Columbia | 59 | Flair, WestJet |
| =7 | Saskatoon, Saskatchewan | 51 | WestJet |
| =7 | Abbotsford, British Columbia | 51 | Flair, WestJet |
| 9 | Montreal, Quebec | 50 | Air Canada, Porter, WestJet |
| 10 | Ottawa, Ontario | 45 | Air Canada, Porter, WestJet |
| Rank | Airport | Passengers | Carriers |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Los Angeles, California | 370,076 | WestJet |
| 2 | Las Vegas, Nevada | 354,066 | WestJet |
| 3 | Phoenix–Sky Harbor, Arizona | 312,153 | WestJet |
| 4 | Houston–Intercontinental, Texas | 282,113 | United, WestJet |
| 5 | Denver, Colorado | 274,100 | United, WestJet |
| 6 | San Francisco, California | 268,308 | United, WestJet |
| 7 | Chicago, Illinois | 225,438 | American, United, WestJet |
| 8 | Seattle, Washington | 224,032 | Alaska, WestJet |
| 9 | Dallas, Texas | 195,910 | American |
| 10 | Atlanta, Georgia | 175,091 | WestJet |
| 11 | Minneapolis,Minnesota | 155,348 | Delta, WestJet |
| 12 | Cancun, Mexico | 141,088 | WestJet |
| 13 | Palm Springs, California | 132,811 | WestJet |
| 14 | Puerto Vallarta, Mexico | 113,543 | WestJet |
| 15 | Orlando, Florida | 110,246 | WestJet |
| Rank | Airport | Passengers | Carriers |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | London, United Kingdom | 404,401 | Air Canada, WestJet |
| 2 | Frankfurt, Germany | 231,739 | Condor, Discover |
| 3 | Amsterdam, Netherlands | 210,799 | KLM |
| 4 | Paris, France | 183,591 | WestJet |
| 5 | Rome, Italy | 120,628 | WestJet |
Deerfoot Trail provides freeway access to the rest of the city.[130] There is also a tunnel beneath Runway 17L/35R that links the east side of the airport site to the terminal buildings.[131] Two parking garages and a rental-car facility are situated across from the terminals.[62][132] Public transport options are also available at the airport: Buses operated byCalgary Transit link YYC Calgary International to downtown, anearby station of the local CTrain light-rail network, and other parts of the city.[133][134]
A distinct corporate culture that forms part of the foundation of WestJet is evident in the airy, six-storey head office at its campus at Calgary International Airport and is mission critical for Mr. Saretsky.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)American was invoked but never defined (see thehelp page).
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