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Caddoan languages

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Family of Native American languages
Caddoan
Geographic
distribution		Great Plains,North America
Linguistic classificationOne of the world's primarylanguage families
Subdivisions
Language codes
ISO 639-5cdd
Linguasphere64-B
Glottologcadd1255
Pre-contact distribution of Caddoan languages

TheCaddoan languages are afamily of languages native to theGreat Plains spoken by tribal groups of the centralUnited States, from present-dayNorth Dakota south toOklahoma. All Caddoan languages are critically endangered, as the number of speakers has declined markedly due to colonial legacy, lack of support, and other factors.

Family division

[edit]

Five languages belong to the Caddoan language family:

Caddo, Kitsai and Wichita have no speakers left. Kitsai stopped being spoken in the 19th century when its members were absorbed into theWichita tribe. Wichita stopped being spoken in 2016, when the last native speaker ofWichita,Doris McLemore (who left recordings and language materials), died. Caddo stopped being spoken in 2025, when the last native speaker, Edmond Johnson, died.[1]

All of the remaining Caddoan languages spoken today are severely endangered. As of 2007, both thePawnee andArikara languages only had 10 speakers. Pawnee is spoken in Oklahoma by small numbers of tribal elders. Arikara is spoken on theFort Berthold Reservation inNorth Dakota.

Prior to colonization andUS expansion, speakers of Caddoan languages were more widespread. TheCaddo, for example, lived in northeasternTexas, southwesternArkansas, and northwesternLouisiana, as well as southeastern Oklahoma. ThePawnee formerly lived along thePlatte River in what is nowNebraska.

Prehistory

[edit]

Glottochronology is a controversial method of reconstructing, in broad detail, the history of a language and its relationships, though it may still provide useful insights and generalizations regarding a family's history. In the case of Proto-Caddoan, it appeared to have divided into two branches, Northern and Southern, more than 3000 years ago. (The division of the language implies also a geographic and/or political separation).

South Caddoan, or Caddo proper, evolved in north-eastern Texas and adjacent Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Louisiana. Other than Caddo, no daughter languages are known, but some unrecorded ones likely existed in the 16th and the 17th centuries.

Northern Caddoan evolved into several different languages. The language that became Wichita, with several different dialects, branched off about 2000 years ago. Kitsai separated from the Northern Caddoan stem about 1200 years ago, and Pawnee and Arikara separated 300 to 500 years ago.[2]

External relations

[edit]

Adai, alanguage isolate from Louisiana is known only from a 275-word list collected in 1804, and may be a Caddoan language, however documentation is too scanty to determine with certainty.[3] Adjacent to the Caddo lived theEyeish or Ais—not to be confused with theAis of Florida—who also spoke a language that may have been related to Caddoan.[4]

Some linguists believe that the Caddoan,Iroquoian, andSiouan languages may be connected in aMacro-Siouan language family, but their work is suggestive and the theory remains hypothetical. Similar attempts to find a connection with theAlgonquian languages have been inconclusive. There is insufficient evidence for linguists to propose a hypothetical Macro-Algonquian/Iroquoian language family.[5]

Reconstruction

[edit]

Some Proto-Northern Caddoan reconstructions byChafe (1979):[6]: 220 

glossProto-
Northern
Caddoan		PawneeArikaraWichitaCaddo
arm*win-pí:ruʔwí:nuʔwi:rʔamí:suh
blood*pat-pá:tuʔpá:tuʔwa:ckicʔabahʔuh
bone*kis-kí:suʔčí:šuʔki:sʔa
egg*nipik-ripí:kuʔnipí:kuʔnikʷi:kʔanibih
eye*kirik-kirí:kuʔciríːkuʔkirikʔa
intestine*riyac-ré:cuʔné:suʔniya:cʔanahč’uh
leg*kas-ká:suʔká:xuʔka:sʔak’á:suh
liver*karik-karí:kuʔkarí:kuʔkarikʔakánk’uh
skunk*niwitríwitníwitniwi:cwihit
sun*sak-(h)un-sakú:ruʔšakú:nuʔsa:khirʔasak’uh
wood*yak-rá:kuʔ ’box’há:kuʔ ’box’haːkʔa/-ya:k-yaʔk’uh

For Proto-Caddoan, Chafe (1979) reconstructs the following phonemes.[6]

  • stops: /p t k/
  • affricate: /ts/⟨c⟩
  • spirant: /s/
  • resonants: /w n r/ and /j/⟨y⟩
  • laryngeals: /ʔ h/
  • vowels: /i a u/

Vocabulary

[edit]

Below is a list of basic vocabulary of Northern Caddoan languages from Parks (1979):[7]

No.EnglishArikaraPawneeKitsaiWichita
1I-t--t--t--c-
2thou-x--s--s--s-
3we-sir--cir--ci- (incl. dual)-cíːy-
4thistititiʔitiʔi
5thatiii-, anini ‘by that’haːríːh
6chestwaːkuːkáu?awaːkiːsuʔnikokíːsukhiːkʔa
7notka-ka-ka-kírih
8allčitúːʔkituːakwácasséːhah
9manyranihuːnkarinirahkina ‘there are many’iyarhah
10oneáxkuxáskuarískuass
11twopítkuxpítkucásu, cúsuwicha
12bigrihuːnrihuːrnikintac; Riwaːc
13womansápatcápatcakwáktkaːhiːkʔa
14manwíːtapíːtawiːtawiːc
15personsáhnišcáhrikskírikaihaːs
16fishčiwáhtškacíːkinitátkaːcʔa
17birdníkusríkuckikuːcáke, kucákiichir
18dogxáːtšásaːkianúːsakicíyeːh
19treenaháːpirahaːpeyáku (wood); ayákwitiyaːhkw
20seednačiríːkuʔrákiriːkuʔnikiríːkʔunikiːsʔa
21leafsčeːkaráːkuʔkskéːkaraːkuʔyakánukíʔincaːcʔa
22rootkasukaːwíuʔrákapahcuʔayakakunayahkasaʔaskiːcʔa
23barkhaːkiskúːxuʔráːkickuːsuʔyakatakuáctíːkʔacʔiyaːcʔa
24skinsahnišskúːxuʔckáriːtuʔarahkitakithaːrʔa
25meattsástškísackineːtanaːs, awánasʔarasʔa
26bloodpáːtuʔpáːtuʔkwáːtuwaːckicʔa
27bonečíːšuʔkíːsuʔkíːsukiːsʔa
28greasečisahítškícahihtuʔyahtkiríyu ‘hot’; kinasíːtu ‘lard’kiraːsʔa
29eggnipíːkuʔripíːkuʔnikwíːkunikwiːkʔa
30hornaríːkuʔpaːríːkuʔ, aríːkuʔaríːkuʔarikʔa
31tailnitkúːʔritkuːʔunitkúhukiːyaːkʔa
32featherhíːtuʔíːtuʔhíːtuʔniːsʔa
33hairúːxuʔúːsuʔickóːsutiyaːcʔa
34headpáxuʔpáksuʔkwitácuʔ íckoʔo ‘about head’weʔekʔa
35eyečiríːkuʔkiríːkuʔkiriːkʔukirikʔa
36nosesiníːtuʔicúːsuʔicúːsutisʔa
37mouthhaːkáʔuʔháːkauʔháːkuhaːkaʔa
38tootháːnuʔáːruʔanhíːsuʔaːkʔa
39tongueháːtuʔháːtuʔháːtuʔhacʔa
40fingernailšwíːtuʔkspíːtuʔkskwíːtuiskwicʔa
41footáxuʔásuʔasúʔasʔa
42kneepaːčíːšuʔpáːkiːsuʔkirikisnayuskiːskwasʔa
43handíšuʔíksuʔíksuʔiskʔa
44neckčíːsuʔkíːcuʔnatíːnukiticʔa
45breastséːtuʔéːtuʔisáːtueːcʔa
46liverkaríːkuʔkaríːkuʔkaríːkukarikʔa
47drinkčiːkakíːkakíːka-kikʔa
48eatwaːwa-awaːwa-awawaʔánu, wáwaʔa-waːwaʔa
49bitekaʔuskauctakocóhu ‘bite it’-taʔa
50seeut... e.rikut... eːriktuciʔeːriksu ‘he sees it’ʔiːs
51hearatka-uatka-uatkarahkus ‘hear it’ʔaːckhéʔe
52knowut...reːsiːšir...raːʔiːtaatihayaki ‘I know it’wickaʔa
53sleepitkaitkaitka-hiʔinck
54diekoːthurahachíːksta ‘died’-teʔes
55killkoːtikkuːtikkiki
56swimhuːseːriːtikhuːceːriːtiknutoceríːtik ‘he swims’-arhiya ‘to bathe’
57flyawanuawariniahak, -a-ʔiːtoː (+loc.)ʔa
58laughawaxkawaskawas naʔaʔa ‘comes in air’-wakharikikw
59comein...ain...aináhu ‘he is coming’u-a... ʔa
60liešasasaʔirhawi
61sitkuxkuwiʔicaki
62standaričarikárikiariki
63cutkakatkkakatkkakatk-kack
64saywaːkowaːkuwákuwakʔa
65sunšakúːnuʔsakúːruʔsakúːnusaːkhirʔa
66moonpáhpácúhkwáwáːh
67starsákaːʔaúːpiritnikwírikhíːkwirikʔa
68watertstóːxuʔkíːcuʔakicóːnukicʔa
69raintsuhíːnuʔácuhuːruʔnahacaʔaa...hiriʔa (verb only)
70stonekanítškarítkikátanuʔikaːʔa
71sandčiwíhtuʔkíwiktuʔkiwíktukiːchaːrʔa
72earthhunáːnuʔhuráːruʔhunáːnahiraːrʔa
73cloudskarahkataháːnuʔckáuʔnáctonkeʔeːrʔa
74smokenaːwíːšuʔráːwiːsuʔaːrosːickweʔeːkʔa
75firečeːkáʔuʔkeːkauʔ ‘flame’akiakyecʔa (n.); -keʔe ‘be a fire’
76ashitkanahtúːsuʔkaráktuhcuʔitkáːnuickhaːrʔa ‘dust, sand’
77burnin...kunistaʔakahuːriktik, ir...kunstaʔanahúniku, -hurik-hiri
78pathhatúːnuʔ, -sat-hatúːruʔnuhyaːtáta ‘path goes’hachirʔa; -yac ‘to be path’
79mountainwáːʔuʔwáːuʔarakauhnawaːreʔerhárih ‘where there are mountains’
80redpahaːtpahaːtkwahtnyúkwaːc
81bluetareːʔuːxtareːʔuːsarayósːkawʔac
82yellowrahkatáːnrahkataːrkisísː, kwanisnarisis
83whitečiːsawatáːntaːkaːrkahcnúkhac
84blackkatíːtkatíːtkatinukkaːrʔiːs
85nightnitkaháːnuʔrátkahaːruʔnatki-ckhaːrʔa
86hotin...awiristoir...awiricturahtátkiu ‘it’s hot’wariːckhaːrʔa
87coldin...raːnanaːxituir...raraːsitunahenóːku ‘it’s cold’-hkwic
88satedkaːwačiːtkaːwakiːtahinoːsana ‘becomes sated’tawaːwi
89goodun...heːrur...heːrickuruːku, ickorókacs
90roundriwiruriwiruariwíoktáriwiːk
91threetawihk-tawihk-táwihkotawhaː
92grasshúːnuʔíːruʔacíːuhíːyaːkhaːrʔa
93gutsnéːsuʔréːcuʔkiréːcu, kiriacuniyaːcʔa
94windhutúːnuʔhutúːruʔhutúːnuniweʔéːrʔa
95foggypihuːpihuːrúsca-ʔiskwaːwi
96urinatekaːsuːkaːcuːwíahas ‘he urinates’-aːhas
97tieut...tareːpiut...tareːpuatonocakósk ‘I tie it’-thiyaki
98singraːkaroːkraːkaruːkkurawáknu ‘he is singing’kiraːh
99spit outhawathawatahatkicowati ‘he spits’hawati
100cryčikakkikakakikakóhuʔiriki

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^"Caddo Nation mourns loss of last fluent language speaker".KOCO News. 2025-07-16. Retrieved2025-07-16.
  2. ^"Caddoan TreeArchived 2016-03-04 at theWayback Machine", Texas Beyond History website, accessed 30 May 2011; Schleser, Karl H.Plains Indians, A.D. 500 to 1500: The Archaeological Past of Historic Groups. Norman: U of OK Press, 1994, pp. 147-148
  3. ^"Adai." Native Languages, accessed 1 Jun 2011
  4. ^"Who were the Ais." Texas Beyond History, accessed 1 Jun 2011
  5. ^Mithun, Marianne.The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 305
  6. ^abChafe, Wallace L. 1979. Caddoan. In Lyle Campbell and Marianne Mithun (eds.),The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment, 213-235. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  7. ^Parks, Douglas R. 1979. The Northern Caddoan Languages: Their Subgrouping and Time Depths.Nebraska History 60: 197-213.

Further reading

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  • Campbell, Lyle. (1997).American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
  • Chafe, Wallace L. (1973). Siouan, Iroquoian, and Caddoan. InT. Sebeok (Ed.),Current Trends in Linguistics (Vol. 10, pp. 1164–1209). The Hague: Mouton. (Reprinted as Chafe 1976).
  • Chafe, Wallace L. (1976). "Siouan, Iroquoian, and Caddoan", In T. Sebeok (Ed.),Native Languages in the Americas (pp. 527–572). New York: Plenum. (Originally published as Chafe 1973).
  • Chafe, Wallace L. (1976).The Caddoan, Iroquioan, and Siouan languages. Trends in Linguistics; State-of-the-art report (No. 3). The Hague: Mouton.ISBN 90-279-3443-6.
  • Chafe, Wallace L. (1979).Caddoan. In L. Campbell & M. Mithun (Eds.),The languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment (pp. 213–235). Austin: University of Texas Press.ISBN 0-292-74624-5.
  • Chafe, Wallace L. (1993). "Indian Languages: Siouan–Caddoan".Encyclopedia of the North American colonies (Vol. 3). New York: C. Scribner's SonsISBN 0-684-19611-5.
  • Lesser, Alexander; &Weltfish, Gene. (1932). "Composition of the Caddoan linguistic stock".Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,87 (6), 1–15.
  • Melnar, Lynette R. Caddo Verb Morphology(2004) University of Nebraska Press,ISBN 978-0-8032-2088-1
  • Mithun, Marianne. (1999).The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk);ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
  • Taylor, Allan. (1963). "Comparative Caddoan",International Journal of American Linguistics,29, 113–131.

External links

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