Byzantine silk issilk woven in theByzantine Empire (Byzantium) from about the fourth century until theFall of Constantinople in 1453.
The Byzantine capital ofConstantinople was the first significant silk-weaving center in Europe. Silk was one of the most important commodities in theByzantine economy, used by the state both as a means of payment and of diplomacy.[1]
Raw silk was bought fromChina and made up into fine fabrics that commanded high prices throughout the world. Later,silkworms were smuggled into the Empire and the overland silk trade gradually became less important. After the reign ofJustinian I, the manufacture and sale of silk became an imperial monopoly, only processed in imperial factories, and sold to authorized buyers.[1]
Byzantine silks are significant for their brilliant colours, use of gold thread, and intricate designs that approach the pictorial complexity ofembroidery inloom-woven fabric.[2] Byzantium dominated silk production in Europe throughout theEarly Middle Ages, until the establishment of the Italian silk-weaving industry in the 12th century and the conquest and break-up of the Byzantine Empire in theFourth Crusade (1204).
In the time of theRoman Empire, silk textiles reached theWest overland via theSilk Road across Asia fromHan China, passing through theParthian Empire and laterSassanid Empire to trading centers in Syria. Imports of raw silk, silk yarn, and finished fabrics are all recorded, but the techniques of producing these textiles from the silkwormBombyx mori remained a closelyguarded secret of the Chinese until theEmperor of the EastJustinian I (482–565) arranged to have silkworm eggssmuggled out ofCentral Asia in 553–54,[3] setting the stage for the flowering of the Byzantine silk-weaving industry.
The trade of the silk worms and cocoons started off with households having an industry within their homes for silk making. The households tended to be on the outskirts of a town or in rural areas. The capital is where the main production of silk goods was done, and so the silk materials would have to be transported via land or sea and given from merchant to merchant in order to make it to the capital to be made into goods.[4] However, this method was risky economically, as there were many factors that people had to consider in order to proceed. The mode of transportation, capacity utilization, the distance needing to be traveled, charges for carrying silk cocoons, and the quality expectations were all variables in the economic feasibility of silk and its production.[5]
New types of looms and weaving techniques also played a part.Plain-woven or tabby silks had circulated in the Roman world, and patterneddamask silks in increasingly complex geometric designs appear from the mid-3rd century.Weft-faced compoundtwills were developed not later than 600, and polychrome (multicolored) compound twills became the standard weave for Byzantine silks for the next several centuries.[6][7] Monochromelampas weaves became fashionable around 1000 in both Byzantine and Islamic weaving centres; these fabrics rely on contrasting textures rather than color to render patterns. A small number oftapestry-woven Byzantine silks also survive.[7]
Figured (patterned) Byzantine silks of the 6th (and possibly 5th) centuries show overall designs of small motifs such as hearts,swastikas,palmettes and leaves worked in two weft colours.[6] Later, recognizable plant motifs (such as lotus leaves and flowers) and human figures appear. Surviving textiles document a rich exchange of techniques and iconographic themes between Constantinople and the newly-Islamic textile centres of the Mediterranean and Central Asia in the years after theMuslim conquests of the 7th century. Designs of the 8th and 9th centuries show rows of roundels or medallions populated with pairs of human or animal figures reversed in mirror-image on a vertical axis.[8] Many motifs echoSassanian designs including thetree of life, winged horses, lions, and imaginary beasts,[2] and there are numbers of surviving pieces where specialists cannot agree between a Byzantine or Islamic origin.[9] Fashionable patterns evoked the activities and interests of the royal court, such as hunting scenes or thequadriga (four-horse chariot).[8]
Silk diplomacy was also utilized to maintain political and trade diplomatic relationships with other nations, especially in Southern and Eastern Europe. Regions in the Latin West likeVenice,Genoa,Pisa, andAmalfi would have silk utilized as a diplomatic gift and reward. In one particular instance, Venice protected the Byzantines from theNormans and the Crusaders and were rewarded with gold and silk for their efforts.[10] Marriages would also be used to create political alliances, and silk was used to help arrange marriages. These were done by promising silk dispensaries as well, and were done with the Latin West a lot. One famous case was Emperor Constantine V marrying his eldest son Geo to Gisela, the daughter of the Latin ruler Pepin. This was done to help with negotiations with the betrothal in 765, and mosaic hunter silk was thrown in to improve the deal.[10]
A lot of information on the exchange of silk prior to the eleventh century was found in theVita Basilii, which written during the reign ofConstantine VII. Silk producers would send gifts on behalf of their governments as a sign of peace. One silk producer was a slave named Danelina, who sent gifts toEmperor Basil I in 880. Among these gifts were 100 female weavers and precious textiles.[11]
Shortly after the smuggling of silkworm eggsfrom China byNestorian Christian monks,[12] the 6th-century Byzantine historianMenander Protector writes of how theSogdians attempted to establish a direct trade of Chinese silk with the Byzantine Empire. After forming an alliance with the Sasanian rulerKhosrow I to defeat theHephthalite Empire,Istämi, theGöktürk ruler of theTurkic Khaganate, was approached by Sogdian merchants requesting permission to seek an audience with the Sassanidking of kings for the privilege of traveling through Persian territories in order to trade with the Byzantines.[12] Istämi refused the first request, but when he sanctioned the second one and had the Sogdian embassy sent to the Sassanid king, the latter had the members of the embassy poisoned to death.[12]
Maniah, a Sogdian diplomat, convinced Istämi to send an embassy directly toConstantinople, which arrived in 568 and offered not only silk as a gift to Byzantine rulerJustin II, but also proposed an alliance against Sassanid Persia. Justin II agreed and sent an embassy to the Turkic Khaganate, ensuring the direct silk trade desired bythe Sogdians.[12][13][14] However, even with the Byzantine production of silk starting in the 6th century, Chinese varieties were still considered of better quality, a fact that is perhaps underscored by the discovery of a Byzantinesolidus coin minted during the reign of Justin II found in aSui dynasty (581–618 AD) Chinese tomb ofShaanxi province in 1953, among other Byzantine coins found at various sites.[15]
According toChinese histories, the Byzantines (i.e. "Fu-lin"), maintaining anearlier Roman diplomatic tradition in China, also sent several embassies to the court of the ChineseTang dynasty (618–907 AD) and on one occasion to that of theSong dynasty (960–1279), offering exotic giftssuch as glasswares while demonstrating a continual interest in the Chinese silk trade.[16] The 7th-century Byzantine historianTheophylact Simocatta provided a fairly accurate depiction of China,its geography, its reunification by theSui dynasty (581–618), and even named its rulerTaisson as meaning "Son of God", perhaps also derived from the nameEmperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626–649).[17] Contemporary Chinese sources, namely theOld andNew Book of Tang, also depicted the city ofConstantinople andhow it was besieged byMuawiyah I (founder of theUmayyad Caliphate), who exactedtribute afterwards.[16][18]
Being the capital for the Byzantine Empire meant that much diplomacy was done and centered around Constantinople. Foreign dignitaries would stay within the city, and silk would be used to show gratitude towards other nations. For instance, whenEmperor Manuel I was victorious over the Hungarians and Serbs in battle, he had numerous silk items on display in Constantinople and to be adorned by high ranking officials. This was shown off to the captured Hungarians and Serbs, who were also made to feel the silk. This was done to showcase the Byzantine's superiority over the defeated nations in the Byzantine's eyes.[19]
Silk was used to perform trade and military treaties with Arabic regions and started at some point before the eleventh century. The Byzantines admired Arab silk textures and patterns greatly, and would try to have silk producers replicate them within the empire. Silk allowed for a cross-cultural exchange between Arabic Regions and the Byzantine Empire. Silk has also been mentioned in military treaties, such as in a peace treaty in 968 between Muslim governor ofAleppo, Qarghawaih (modern daySyria), and EmperorNikephoros II. When Arab pirates attacked northernPeloponnese, one of the main reasons the Byzantines heavily defended it was due to luxury silk textiles being located there.[11]
Regulations governing the use of expensiveTyrian purpledyestuffs varied over the years, but cloth dyed in these colors was generally restricted to specific classes and was used indiplomatic gifts. Other dyes used in Byzantine silk workshops weremadder,kermes,indigo,weld, andsappanwood.[20] Gold thread was made with silver-gilt strips wrapped around a silk core.[21]
These regulations were incited under imperialdecrees, which led to an imperial monopoly over the usage of silk within the Byzantine Empire. The purple dyes in particular were monopolized. Due to the high costs and labor involved, the imperials were the only ones able to produce the purple silk as well.[19] The Empire had a cooperative body called acollegia oversee the production of purple dyes with silk making. If one was found to be making unapproved silk productions with purple dyes, their product would be seized and would have to pay a fine. There would also be types of yard that would be forbidden to use with purple dyes based on the emperor's preference with it.[11]
The decrees also resulted inJustinian Codes in how the silks were identified. Different silks could be used to determine your status within the empire, your civil or military office status, and your social and economic status.[10] The decrees also put regulations on the open market the silks were sold in, needing a government official or member of the clergy to give you permission to sell your silk.[10]
In the 10th century, non-imperialguilds maintained some of the silk production in the Byzantine Empire, especially in Constantinople. There were regulations these guilds had to follow, which were documented in theBook of the Perfect. For example, purples and certain blues and reds could only be sold and produced for people in the imperial court or of a high social standing. There were also types of petticoats and garments reserved for these groups as well under this book.[19]
Silks in the Byzantine Empire were given to the Church as gifts to show the Empire's dedication to the Church. Many churches received elegant silks, many embroidered with gold or gemstones. Altar cloth before the ninth century was composed mostly of pure gold and silken thread. The monastery of St. John at Patmos had a detailed inventory of silk given to them before the year 1200. Included in this inventory was silk cloths which covered instruments of theEucharist, silk vestments, and silk icon covers. Liturgical practice also used silk cloth such asepigonation,epitaphios, andsakkos.[10]
Serika is a term used by many Byzantine historians such asTheophanes of Byzantium, Nikephoros, andNiketas Choniates. This term usually refers to a completed silk product. While typically silk was a luxury item, this term refers to silk products that would be available to the general public. The term is a vague description for silk products, and more specific terms would be needed for silk descriptions[22]
Blattia started as a term to describe silk goods that were dyed purple, usually from being mixed with shellfish. It became associated with generalized silk products around the 9th century. The term became more ambiguous, being referred to any silk product dyed purple. The products ranged from garments, furniture, and decorative tapestries.[23]
Holoserika refers to a reward that sailors would receive for retrieving valuable goods, typically silk goods, while on a voyage. Generally, the rewards were generic silk goods. The term appeared in the 7th or 8th century in the Rhodian Sea Law.[23]
Subsericum generally refers to silk that is badly spun. It doesn't relate to silk products, but rather the silk that is used to create products.[23]
Holoblattia refers to silk used in more important goods or the goods themselves. Some examples of this are ceremonial attire for church singers and ceremonial attire for imperial guards.[23]
Metaxa refers to raw silk fiber. One of the first uses of this term was fromProkopios, who used it in his description of the introduction ofsericulture to Byzantium. This term also was used in many descriptions describing trade with the Sogdians, showcasing that much trade was done with the raw silk fiber rather than completed silk goods. Occasionally this term could be referred to woven silk, but most of the time was referred to unwoven silk. This term is also found in references to military equipment, such as the material for the strings on bows.[24]
Sendes refers to silk fabric that was made in a way to imitate silk found in Arabic regions. Typically this would include the texture of the silk, as well as patterns that are on the finished product.[11]
Triblattion refers to silk that is reserved for the emperor and his court. This kind is a type of clothing, which is usually bi-colored or tri-colored. Typically, there would be a dominant color and a ground color.[22]
Diblattion also refers to silk products reserved for the emperor and his court. However, these silk goods are the cushions that they recline on. Each diblattion would be sewn and made differently based on your theme. Your theme was usually dictated by your role in the empire. For example, military leaders would be given a different dilattion based on their ranks.[22]
Of the five basic weaves used in Byzantium and the Islamic weaving centers of the Mediterranean – tabby, twill, damask, lampas and tapestry – the most important product was the weft-faced compound twill calledsamite. The word is derived from Old Frenchsamit, from medieval Latinsamitum, examitum deriving from theByzantineGreek ἑξάμιτονhexamiton "six threads", usually interpreted as indicating the use of six yarns in thewarp.[25][26] In samite, the main warp threads are hidden on both sides of the fabric by the ground and patterning wefts, with only the binding warps that hold the wefts in place visible.[27][28]
These rich silks – literally worth their weight in gold – were powerful political weapons of the Byzantine Empire between the 4th and 12th centuries. Diplomatic gifts of Byzantine silks cemented alliances with theFranks. Byzantium granted silk-trading concessions to the sea powers ofVenice,Pisa,Genoa andAmalfi to secure naval and military aid for Byzantine territories.[29]
The influence exerted by Byzantine silk weaving was profound. Byzantine silk court ritual and ecclesiastical practices were adopted by the Franks, just as Byzantine court furnishing styles and dress codes were echoed across the Islamic world. Byzantium developed elaborate silk court attire and set the style for use of silk in civil and military uniforms and for rich religious vestments.... These silks served as a form of portable wealth that could be profitably disposed of in times of need.[30]
Silks survive in Western Europe from the graves of important figures, used in book bindings, and alsoreliquaries. But it is clear they had a number of uses as hangings and drapes in churches and the houses of the wealthy, as well as for clothing and vestments. The sources rarely mention the specific origin of silks, but sometimes describe the designs in enough detail to allow an identification as Byzantine.[31]
Anglo-Saxon England had silks from at least the late 7th century, brought back from Rome byBenedict Biscop and others.[32] They were an essential, and easily carried, purchase for well-off pilgrims to Rome or theHoly Land (where Syrian or Egyptian silk might also be bought), and were available in England from English traders who certainly had bases in Rome andPavia, and probably also bought from Scandinavian traders using the Baltic route. A unique special arrangement had to be made whereby the English crown paid directly a sum to Pavia in lieu of the customs duty on silk, which the Pavians found too difficult or dangerous to collect from English merchants. Diplomatic gifts also cascaded down from the Imperial court in Constantinople, with the rulers who received them passing many on to other rulers, and churches both in and outside their territory. Charlemagne gave not only KingOffa of Mercia silks, but also the dioceses ofMercia andNorthumbria.[33]
In addition to woven dress and furnishing fabrics, Byzantine workshops were also known for woventapestries and richlyembroidered textiles with decoration that often included figurative scenes. The most impressive example to survive is the 10th century "Bamberger Gunthertuch", a woven tapestry[34] piece over two metres square, with a mounted emperor between two female personifications. Nearly a century after it was made it was acquired by BishopGunther of Bamberg in Germany, on a pilgrimage to Constantinople. He died during the journey and it was used for hisshroud. Embroidered religious scenes were also used for vestments and hangings, and the famous EnglishOpus Anglicanum seems to have been heavily influenced by Byzantine embroidery.[35] This continued Late Antique trends, which among other evidence are known from finds in Egyptian cemeteries, and the complaint by SaintAsterius of Amasia in around 410 about his flock in northeastern Turkey, where he says the laity decorated their clothes with religious images:
... they artfully produce, both for themselves and for their wives and children, clothing beflowered and wrought with ten thousand objects....When, therefore, they dress themselves and appear in public, they look like pictured walls in the eyes of those that meet them. And perhaps even the children surround them, smiling to one another and pointing out with the finger the picture on the garment; and walk along after them, following them for a long time. On these garments are lions and leopards; bears and bulls and dogs; woods and rocks and hunters ... You may see the wedding of Galilee, and the water-pots; the paralytic carrying his bed on his shoulders; the blind man being healed with the clay; the woman with the bloody issue, taking hold of the border of the garment; the sinful woman falling at the feet of Jesus; Lazarus returning to life from the grave. In doing this they consider that they are acting piously and are clad in garments pleasing to God. But if they take my advice let them sell those clothes and honour the living image of God. Do not picture Christ on your garments. It is enough that he once suffered the humiliation of dwelling in a human body which of his own accord he assumed for our sakes. So, not upon your robes but upon your soul carry about his image.[36]
The Egyptian cemetery examples are usually in less fine textiles than silk, and are typically roundels or other simple shapes with a border and a scene inside. This style of design seems not dissimilar to mentions and the few survivals of religious embroidery from the West many centuries later. Some Western embroidery was imported, other pieces no doubt done locally on imported silk, though other materials were used. The only survival of such work on the largest scale, the enormousBayeux Tapestry (incomplete at 0.5 by 68.38 metres or 1.6 by 224.3 ft) is wool embroidered on a plainlinen background, and not technically a tapestry at all. However smaller scale figurative hangings and clothes in silk are mentioned.[37]
In 1147, during theSecond Crusade,Roger II of Sicily (1095–1154) attackedCorinth andThebes, two important centres of Byzantine silk production, capturing the weavers and their equipment and establishing his own silkworks inPalermo andCalabria.[38] After the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the forces of theFourth Crusade (1202–1204) and the establishment of theLatin Empire (1204–1261) andother "Latin" states in the Byzantine territories, the Byzantine silk industry contracted, supplying only the domestic luxury market,[29] andleadership in European silk-weaving and design passed to Sicily and the emerging Italian centres ofLucca andVenice.
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