By the 6th century, such ideas had already influenced the definitive power of the monarch as therepresentative of God on earth and of his kingdom as an imitation ofGod's holy realm.[3] TheByzantine Empire was a multi-ethnicmonarchictheocracy adopting, following, and applying theOrthodox-Hellenistic political systems andphilosophies.[4][5] The monarch was the incarnation of the law—nomos empsychos—and his power was immeasurable and divine in origin insofar as he channeled God's divine grace, maintaining what is good. He was the ultimate benefactor, caretaker, and saviour of the people:Evergétis,Philanthrōpía, andSōtēr, anointed with all power, upholding the divine laws since he ought to emulate Christ first (christomimetes) in all of his divine, pious, loving orthodox attributes to all by being his earthly presence.[6][7]
The people in turn were the monarch'sparoikoi (subjects). He was the sole administrator and lawgiver of the holyBasileia andOikoumene (commonwealth), with sole power over the state, the land, and his subjects, which he had achieved through God's appointment of him as king. This opened a new stage of reverence in which Hellenistic and Easterncourt ceremonies such asproskynesis highlighted the divinity of the ruler and became standardized and often mandatory.[8] In practice, imperial power was exercised as administration—simplified and centralized throughviceroys such as theExarchos,Douk,Katepánō,Kephalai and theStrategoi who enjoyed the same omnipotence and the emperor's God given dignity in their respectivegovernorships.[9]
Such concentrations of power proved to be both an internal weakness and the cause of variouscoups and rebellions in which viceroys with provincial armies and, sometimes, entirethemes, would often challenge imperial power with claims of their own. In this way emperors such asNikephoros II Phokas (r. 963–969) andHeraclius (r. 610–641) achieved royal power for themselves.
There were no codified laws on the imperial succession, and theRoman Republic was never formally abolished. Theoretically, eachemperor was formally elected, by both thesenate (Synkletos) and thearmy. In practice, however, the Senate had lost all of its former powers and was mostly reduced to a ceremonial role, filled with relatives or close aristocrats to the Emperor; while the Army practically had a monopoly regarding elections. Emperors usually managed to secure succession for their children through indirect means, such as appointing them as co-emperors, and thus introduced variousdynasties. The absence of codified succession laws and procedures, as well as the militarized state of the Empire, led to a number of coups and revolts, leading to several disastrous results, such as the 1071 defeat atManzikert.
Applying Orthodox-Hellenistic political schemes, the monarch's household was the sacred kingdomOikonomia, and he was its Christ-loving owner and managerOikonomos, which meant that no individual or institution through the history of the empire truly owned any land in the face of state supreme ownership.[10] Beneath the emperor, a multitude of officials and court functionaries—all directly chosen by the emperor or by one of his representatives—operated the empire's administrative bureaucracy. State officials acted not as magistrates or elected publiclegates, but as representatives, deputies, and viceroys of the monarch in his different domains throughout the empire. In addition to those officials, a number of honorific titles existed, which the emperor awarded to prominent subjects or to friendly foreign rulers.
Over the more than a thousand years of the empire's existence, the Imperial administrative system evolved in its adoption of historic titles. At first, the various titles of the empire were the same as those of thelateRoman Empire. However, by the era ofHeraclius (r. 610–641), a number of the titles had become obsolete. By the time ofAlexios I (r. 1082–1118), a number of the positions were either new or drastically changed. However, from that time on, they remained essentially the same until thefall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453.
In the early Byzantine period (4th to late 6th century), the administrative structure of the empire was a conglomeration of the late Roman Empire'sdiocese system, set up byDiocletian andConstantine, and ofJustinian's innovations; in the years 535 and 536 Justinian's administrative reforms were formalized. This eliminated the administrative diocese system hierarchy established in previous centuries and with it the strict military and civic divisions within the empire, replacing it with various provincial circumscriptions directly governed by deputies of the emperor, variously calledStratalates,Strategoi andHarmost.[11] These deputies held extraordinary military and administrative powers accompanied by prestigious new titleholders in an attempt to lessen corruption and simplify the emperor's direct handling over its domains, foreshadowing similar future administrative reforms initiated and endorsed by contemporary divine Orthodox monarchical philosophy in the Greek-speaking eastern Mediterranean.[10]
Following the transformation of the Byzantine state during the 7th century due to massive territorial loss to theMuslim conquests, this early structuring came to be replaced by thethematic military system whose functions had been simplified and specialized in the rapid creation of provincial armies. Influenced by Orthodox kingship and Hellenistic theocraticphilosophies, power was relegated to military leaders, with the variousStrategoi,Katepan, Douk,Kephalai orExarch each acting asviceroys in their respective"thémata" or governorships, all being appointed by the sovereign directly.[12] These governors, being the direct representatives of the monarch himself all through the provinces, enjoyed an omnipotence of their own, accompanied by the divine attributes for being deputies of the emperor himself in their respective districts. Their primary tasks were jointly working with the various provincial subordinates of the capital bureaus for the effective collection of taxes from the different communities("Chora", "Komai"), from the different land owners estates("proasteion"), and from monasteries("episkepsis"). Additionally, and more commonly, as the right hand of the emperor in the management of internal and external affairs, they had to provide an efficient management of fast and flexible provincial armies, dispatching them to appease different threats within the borders, or for the management of new successful territorial acquisitions after long-term campaigns, thereby taking key roles as protagonists of any armed offensive headed by the emperor.[13]
AStrategos, or any military governor, was assisted by several deputies, chief among them thetourmarchēs ormerarchēs (to a lesser degree also referred astopotērētēs). The main provincial governors and their deputies held equal military and administrative duties within the mainsub-division inside a thema, atourma. These deputies, or any deputy or representative of the Strategos, or of any other military governor, were generally calledEk prosopou, second to them theKrites orPraitor were responsible for the judicial matters inside a Theme. Although the range of tasks of theKrites orPraitor were neither fixed nor dogmatic, as they are shown assisting in various military campaigns or, on occasions, replacing the Strategos in his military duties.[14]
Due to the lack of action or large-scale battles in the thematas ofmainland Greece, by the 12th century most of these came to be governed directly by theMegas doux, under him theKrites orArchons of the various coastal cities. Thethemes, now made up of severalArchontates, was accommodated and repurposed solely for the income and maintenance of the Byzantine navy, fulfilling a tax supporting role in contrast from the more active and military themas ofStrategos andKatepanos focussed in Asia Minor. The duties of said governors were limited to the collection of the various maritime taxes of their governorships; the management of the various urban centers such as Athens, Corinth or Thebes; and a basic level of protection for its provinces against pirates and any other parties.[14]
During the "classic" or middle period of the Byzantine state (8th-late 11th centuries), a new, court-centered system emerged. In this, dignities of a certain level were awarded with new titles derived from older, now obsolete, public offices. A senatorial class remained in place, which incorporated a part of the upper officialdom; every official from the rank ofprotospatharios (literally "first sword-bearer"; originally the head of the Emperor's bodyguards) was considered a member of it.[15] During this period, multiple families remained important for several centuries, and several Emperors rose from the aristocracy. Two groups can be distinguished: ametropolitan civil nobility and a provincial military one, the latter remaining regionally based and having land-holdings, but apparently no military forces of their own, in contrast tocontemporary Western Europe.
The backbone of Byzantine administration and economy (until thefall of Constantinople) was the joint tax liability system of the different communities inside athéma, duties which were carried out by provincial officials such as theepoptes,exisotes, andpraktores of the different bureaus. ATheme was made up of several individuals and institutions, such as the various lands that the monasteries owned(episkepsis), the soldiers' farming lands(stratiotai), the estates(proasteion) of the land owners(dynatoi) and the peasants(geōrgikē), with most of a village or town(chora or komai) being made up of the latter.[citation needed] These were the main source of a constant and rapid revenue that ultimately derived from the earlier Hellenistic fiscal and administrative principle of"epibole".[clarification needed][16]Epibole had served as an accessible tool for theHellenistic kingdoms for the simple income and rapid collection of taxes by deputies towards various rural communities in the war-timeHellenistic period, after having been adopted and adapted from the late Roman and early Byzantineprovince of Egypt, which had kept its own former fixed fiscal system, proving this measure to be an indirect consequence of the multiple wars and invasions that Byzantium had to deal throughout its history.[17][failed verification]
After the reforms ofAlexios I, the system underwent various changes in which, due to the desperate state of the empire and the urgent need for income to finance its military campaigns and strengthen its borders, several simplifications and concessions were made. The theme system established under theKomnenoi would remain the administrative basis of the Byzantine state until its finalfall in 1453, differing in few key aspects from its administrative predecessors; it highlighted a greater centralization of power. The various Themes had been divided into smaller districts called"Katepanakia" which in turn were made up of the various towns and villages(chora), the monastic estates(episkepsis), the estates of the dynatoi(proasteion), and the variouspronoia grants. The Themes were ruled by a"Doux", who was positioned by the emperor directly, commonly a relative of his or a close aristocrat to theBasileus. TheKatepanakia inside the Theme were ruled by a deputy of the Doux called a"Praktor" or"Energon", they were appointed either by the monarch or the Doux himself, with the primary task of the collection of taxes and a second role in the maintenance of basic order, administration and justice in his district.[18]
Alexios fiscal reforms allowed an institution or individual to catalog and group their land domains and, through it, their fiscal obligations, in a document referred aspraktikon. The new reform essentially broke from the integrity of the"chora" or village tax, as its new purpose was the collection of the various taxes regardless of whether collection was by an institution, individual or the village itself, essentially offering it to the highest bidder. Although a simplification, it was not an improvement, as it pushed a variety of villages and towns to eventually be added to the differentepiskpesis of either the adjoining monasteries or of the various well-resourceddynatoi landowners, who would become responsible for both their fiscal obligations as monastic institutions, or as individuals, and for the fiscal obligations of the various towns and villages in their domain. This trend culminated in the eventual disappearance of the fiscal individuality that each commune or town had enjoyed, something which emperors likeBasil II had fought and delayed with special taxes such as theallelengyon. Becoming one of several towns within the estates of the different institutions and individuals of the time was an unbearable phenomenon for multiple communes due to the various fiscal tolerances that thebasileus offered the different monastic institutions and their estates, further accelerating the disappearance of the fiscal individuality of the villages and towns.[19]
The 10th and 11th centuries saw a rise in importance of the aristocracy, and an increased number of new families entering it. The catastrophic losses in the latter 11th century again prompted a reorganization of the imperial administrative system, at the hands of the newKomnenos dynasty: the older offices and titles fell gradually into disuse, while an array of new honorifics emerged, which signified primarily the closeness of their recipient's familial relationship to the Emperor.[15] The Komnenian-led Empire, and later theirPalaiologan successors, were based primarily on thelanded aristocracy, keeping the governance of the state tightly controlled by a limited number of intermarrying aristocratic families; for instance in the 11th and 12th century, only 80 civil and 64 military noble families have been identified, a small number for so large a state.[20] Finally, in the Palaiologan system as reported bypseudo-Kodinos, one can discern the accumulated nomenclature of centuries, with formerly high ranks having been devalued and others taking their place, and the old distinction between office and dignity having vanished.[15]
These were the highest titles, usually limited to members of the imperial family or to a few select foreign rulers whose friendship the Emperor desired.
The back of this coin byManuel I Comnenus bears his title,porphyrogennetos.
Basileus (βασιλεύς), theGreek word for "sovereign" — Originally referred to any king in the Hellenistic period or in any Greek-speaking area of the Roman Empire. It also referred to the Shahs ofPersia. Heraclius adopted it in 629, and it became the Greek word for "emperor." Heraclius also used the titlesautokrator (αὐτοκράτωρ – "autocrat," "self-ruler") andkyrios (κύριος – "Lord"). The Byzantines reserved the term "basileus" among Christian rulers exclusively for the emperor in Constantinople, and referred to Western European kings asrēgas, a Hellenized form of the Latin wordrex ("king"). The feminine formbasilissa referred to anempress. Empresses were addressed aseusebestatē avgousta ("Most PiousAugusta"), and were also calledkyria ("Lady") ordespoina (the female form of "despotes", see below).Primogeniture, or even heredity, were not legally established in Byzantine imperial succession, because in principle the Roman Emperor was selected by common acclamation of the Senate, the People and the Army. This was rooted firmly in the Roman "republican" tradition, whereby hereditary kingship was rejected and the Emperor was nominally the convergence of several offices of the Republic onto one person.[citation needed] Multiple emperors, anxious to safeguard their firstborn son's right to the throne, had them crowned as co-emperors when they were still children, thus assuring that upon their own death the throne would not be even momentarily vacant. In such a case the need for an imperial selection never arose. In several cases, the new Emperor ascended the throne after marrying the previous Emperor'swidow, or indeed after forcing the previous Emperor to abdicate and become amonk. Several emperors were also deposed because of perceived inadequacy, for example after a military defeat, and some were murdered.
Porphyrogennētos (πορφυρογέννητος), "born in the purple" — Derived from Hellenistic bureaucracy, emperors wanting to emphasize the legitimacy of their ascent to the throne appended this title to their names, meaning they were born to a reigning emperor in the delivery room of the imperial palace (called thePorphyra because it was paneled with slabs of the reddish-purple stoneporphyry), and were therefore legitimate beyond any claim to the contrary.
Autokratōr (αὐτοκράτωρ), "self-ruler" — Originally equivalent toimperator, and was used by the emperors.
Basileus Autokratōr (βασιλεύς αὐτοκράτωρ) – A combination of titles reserved for the senior of several ruling co-emperors (συμβασιλεῖς,symbasileis), and denoted the person who held substantive political power.
Despotēs (δεσπότης), "Lord" — Used by the emperors themselves since the time ofJustinian I, and was an honorific address for the sons of reigning emperors. Hellenistic rulers had used it extensively, and during Byzantine times often featured in coins, in lieu ofBasileus. In the 12th century,Manuel I Komnenos made it a separate title, the highest "awarded" title after the emperor. The first suchdespotēs was actually a foreigner,Bela III of Hungary, signifying that Hungary was considered a Byzantine tributary state. In later times, a despot could be the holder of a despotate; for example, theDespotate of Morea, centred atMistra, was held by the heir to the Byzantine throne after 1261. The feminine form,despoina, referred to a female despot or the wife of a despot, but it was also used to address the Empress.
Sebastokratōr (σεβαστοκράτωρ), "Venerable Ruler" — Created byAlexios I Komnenos as a combination ofautokratōr andsebastos (see below). The firstsebastokratōr was Alexios' brother Isaakios. It was essentially a meaningless title, which signified only a close relationship with the Emperor, but ranked immediately after thedespotēs. The feminine form wassebastokratorissa. The first foreigner to be calledsebastokratōr wasStefan Nemanjić ofSerbia, who was given the title in 1191. A Bulgarian aristocrat by the nameKaloyan also used the title.
Kaisar (καῖσαρ), "Caesar" — Originally, as in the late Roman Empire, it was used for a subordinate co-emperor or the heir apparent, and was first among the "awarded" dignities. The office enjoyed extensive privileges, prestige and power. When Alexios I createdsebastokratōr,kaisar became third in importance, and fourth after Manuel I createddespotēs. The feminine form waskaisarissa. However, it remained an office of importance, and was awarded to a few high-ranking and distinguished officials, and was only rarely awarded to foreigners.Justinian II namedTervel, khan of theBulgars,kaisar in 705; the title then developed into theSlavic termtsar or czar (fromLatin throughBulgarian and then into Russian, Serbian etc.). Title was also awarded toGeorge II of Georgia.Andronikos II Palaiologos also namedRoger de Flor, leader of theCatalan Grand Company,kaisar in 1304.
Nobelissimos (νωβελίσσιμος), from the LatinNobilissimus ("most noble") — Originally a title given to close relatives of the Emperor, subordinate only to thekaisar. During theKomnenian period, the title was awarded to officials and foreign dignitaries, diluting its status. The titlePrōtonobelissimos was created in its stead, until it too started to decline, only to be replaced by a further augmented form:Prōtonobelissimohypertatos. By the late Palaiologan era, the former had vanished, while the latter was a provincial official.
Kouropalatēs (κουροπαλάτης), from the Latincura palatii, "charge of the palace" — First attested in the time ofJustinian I, it was the official in charge of running the imperial palace. However, the authority and wealth deriving from this position, as well as the close proximity to the Emperor, meant that it accumulated prestige. It was awarded to important members of the imperial family, but from the 11th century onwards, it declined, and was usually awarded to the vassal rulers ofArmenia andGeorgia.
Sebastos (σεβαστός), "August One" — This title is the literal Greek translation of the Latin termAugustus orAugoustos, which was sometimes used by the emperors. As a separate title, it appeared in the latter half of the 11th century, and was extensively awarded byAlexios I Komnenos to his brothers and relations. The female version of the title wassebastē. The special titleProtosebastos ("First Venerable One") was created for Hadrianos, Alexios' second brother, and awarded also to theDoge of Venice and theSultan of Iconium. During the 12th century, it remained in use for the Emperor's and thesebastokratōr's children, and senior foreign dignitaries. However, the parallel processes of proliferation and devaluation of titles during the 12th century resulted in the creation of a bewildering array of variations, by using the prefixespan ("all"),hyper ("above"),prōto ("first"): examples includePansebastos andPanhypersebastos. Few of them actually survived past the 12th century, and all of them rapidly declined in importance.
In the 8th–11th centuries, according to information provided by theTaktikon Uspensky, theKlētorologion of Philotheos (899) and the writings ofConstantine Porphyrogennetos, below the imperial titles, the Byzantines distinguished two distinct categories of dignities (ἀξίαι): the "dignities by award" (διὰ βραβείων ἀξίαι), which were purely honorific court titles and were conferred by the award of a symbol of rank, and the "dignities by proclamation" (διὰ λόγου ἀξίαι), which were offices of the state and were conferred by imperial pronouncement. The former were further divided into three subcategories, depending on who was eligible for them: different sets of titles existed for the "Bearded Ones" (βαρβάτοι from Latinbarbati, i.e. not eunuchs), the eunuchs (ἐκτομίαι) and women. State officials usually combined titles from both main categories, so that a high official would be bothmagistros (an "awarded" title) andlogothetēs tou dromou (a "proclaimed" office).
The "by award" titles for the "Bearded Ones" (non-eunuchs[22]) were, in descending order of precedence:
Proedros (πρόεδρος), "president" — Originally reserved for eunuchs (see below), it was opened up in the mid-11th century to "Bearded Ones" as well, especially military officials.[23]
Magistros (μάγιστρος) – In the early Byzantine state, themagister officiorum was one of the most senior officials, but as his duties were gradually relegated to other officials, by the 8th century, only the title was left. It remained a high honour, and only rarely awarded until the 10th century.[24] By the early 10th century, there were 12, the first in precedence among them bearing the title ofprōtomagistros. Thereafter the number of its holders was inflated, and the office vanished sometime in the 12th century.[25]
Vestarches (βεστάρχης), "head of the vestai" — Adopted in the latter half of the 10th century for high-ranking eunuchs, it began being awarded to "bearded" senior military officers and judicial officials of Constantinople around 1050, before disappearing in the early 12th century.[26]
Vestes (βέστης) – A senior honorific title, first attested underJohn I Tzimiskes. Awarded to both eunuchs and non-eunuchs, it survived until the early 12th century.[26] The term is etymologically connected to the vestiarion, the imperial wardrobe, but despite earlier attempts to connect the vestai and the related title of vestarchēs, the head of the class of the vestai (see above), with the officials of the vestiarion (see below), no such relation appears to have existed.
Anthypatos (ἀνθύπατος), "proconsul" — Originally the highest rank for provincial governors, it survived the creation of theTheme system, until, in the 9th century, it too became a purely honorific title. The variantprōtanthypatos was created in the 11th century to counter its decline in importance, but both disappeared by the end of the 12th century.
Patrikios (πατρίκιος), "patrician" — Established as the highest title of nobility byConstantine the Great, it remained one of the highest dignities until its disappearance in theKomnenian period, awarded to high-ranking officials, including eunuchs, and foreign rulers. The spouses of patricians bore the titlepatrikia (not to be confused withzōstē patrikia, see below).[27]
Prōtospatharios (πρωτοσπαθάριος), "firstspatharios" — As its name signifies, it originally was the title borne by the leader of thespatharioi ("swordbearers," the Emperor's bodyguards). For instance, in the 6th centuryNarses bore this title.[28] It later became one of the most common high court titles, awarded to senior officials such as thelogothetai, the commanders of the imperialtagmata, or thestrategoi in charge of a theme. The title ofprōtospatharios also signified admittance to the Senate. The office survived until thePalaiologan period, but had declined to the 35th place of the hierarchy.
Dishypatos (δισύπατος), "twice consul" — A rare dignity, which originated possibly in the 8th century.[28]
Spatharokandidatos (σπαθαροκανδιδᾶτος) – a blend word of the titles spatharios and kandidatos, both of which were types of palace guards in the 4th–6th centuries. The earliest references to the title occur in early 8th century and the title is clearly attested only from the early 9th century on. Its distinctive badge (brabeion) was a golden chain (maniakion) worn around the chest.[1][3][full citation needed]
Spatharios (σπαθάριος), "spatha-bearer" — As their name signifies, thespatharioi were initially a special corps of imperial guards (aspatha is a kind of sword). They performed specific duties inside the imperial palace. The title survived until the early 12th century.
Hypatos (ὕπατος), "consul" or "The supreme one" — As in the Roman Republic and Empire, the title was initially given each year to two distinguished citizens (the "ordinary consuls"), untilJustinian I halted the practice due to the extraordinary expenditure it involved. It too became a purely honorific title. The title continued to be occasionally assumed by emperors on accession until the end of the 7th century. Honorary consuls however continued to be named, as attested by seals bearing the titleshypatos orapo hypatōn ("former consul").[29] The title was often conferred to the rulers of south Italian city-states.
Kandidatos (κανδιδᾶτος) – From the Latincandidatus, so named because of their white tunics. They were originally a select group of guards, drawn from theScholae Palatinae. The title disappeared in the Komnenian period.
Vestētōr (βεστήτωρ) — Officers of the imperial wardrobe (Latinvestiarium).[30]
Silentiarios (σιλεντιάριος) — Originally a group of courtiers responsible for the maintenance of order (including respectful silence) in the palace.
Stratēlatēs (στρατηλάτης), Greek equivalent of the Latinmagister militum, andapoeparchōn (ἀποεπάρχων orἀπὸ ἐπάρχων), equivalent of the Latinex praefectis — These two titles are listed as equal by Philotheos. Both were still high dignities in the 6th century, but were devalued afterward.[31]
By descending order of precedence, the "by award" titles for the eunuchs were:
Proedros (πρόεδρος), "president" — This was an entirely new rank introduced in the 960s byNikephoros II Phokas and first awarded toBasil Lekapenos, the eunuchparakoimōmenos. The holder of this dignity was also the president of the Senate, and the termproedros was often used to denote precedence, e.g.proedros of thenotarioi for theprōtonotarios. The title was widely awarded in the 11th century, when it was opened up to non-eunuchs, prompting the creation of theprōtoproedros to distinguish the most senior amongst its holders. It disappeared in the latter 12th century.[23]
Vestarches (βεστάρχης) – Adopted in the latter half of the 10th century for high-ranking eunuchs, it was awarded to "bearded" senior military officers and judicial officials of Constantinople from ca. 1050 on. It disappeared in the early 12th century.[26]
Ostiarios (ὀστιάριος) – From the Latinostiarius, "doorkeeper, usher".
Spatharokoubikoularios (σπαθαροκουβικουλάριος), "sword-chamberlain" — A ceremonial sword-carrier assigned to the personal guard of the emperor.[32] It later became a simple court rank.[33]
Koubikoularios (κουβικουλάριος) – From the Latincubicularius, "chamberlain".
Nipsistiarios (νιψιστιάριος), from Greek νίπτειν, "to wash hands") — Thenipsistiarios was tasked with holding a gold, gem-encrusted water basin and assisting the emperor in performing the ritualablutions before he exited the imperial palace or performed ceremonies.
Zōstē patrikia (ζωστὴ πατρικία), "Girdedpatrikia" — This title, reserved for women, was given to the empress' ladies of honour, and, according to Philotheos, ranked high in hierarchy, above even themagistros andproedros and just below thekouropalates. The title is known from the early 9th century, and disappeared in the 11th century.[34] Otherwise women bore the female forms of their husbands' titles.
Parakoimomenos (literally, "one who sleeps nearby") — The HighChamberlain who slept in the Emperor's bedchamber. Usually a eunuch, during the 9th–10th centuries the holders of this office often functioned asde facto chief ministers of the Empire.
Protovestiarios – Usually a minor relative of the emperor who took care of the emperor's personal wardrobe, especially on military campaigns. He was also sometimes responsible for other members of the imperial household, and the emperor's personal finances. The older term, from before the time ofJustinian I, wascuropalata (orkouropalates in Greek). This was derived fromkourator (curator), an earlier official responsible for financial matters. Thevestiarios was a subordinate official. Theprotovestiaria andvestiaria performed the same functions for the empress.
Papias – Concierge of the imperial palaces, responsible for opening and closing the palace gates each day.
Pinkernes – Originally the emperor's cupbearer, later a senior honorific title.
Kanikleios – The keeper of the imperial inkstand, one of the senior officials of the imperial chancery. In the Komnenian and Palaiologan period, some of its holders werede facto chief ministers of the Empire.
Epi tes trapezes (ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς τραπέζης), "the one in charge of the table" — Official responsible for attending to the imperial table during banquets.
Exarchos – Theexarchs were governors of remote parts of the empire such as Italy or Africa. They enjoyed a greater degree of independence than other provincial governors, combining both civil and military authority, practically acting asviceroys.
Domestikos – Thedomestikoi were originally imperial guards, who later functioned as senior staff officers in theLate Roman army. In the Byzantine period, they were among the highest military offices, and included:
Megas domestikos, Grand Domestic – The overall commander of the army.
Domestikos tōn scholōn, Domestic of the Schools – The commander of theScholai, originally a number of guards units, later aTagma. This was a prestigious title, and by the late 9th century, its holder functioned as commander in chief of the army. In ca. 959, the post was divided, with one domestic for the East and one for the West.
Domestikos tōn thematōn, Domestic of the Themes – The commander and organizer of the military themes; there was one for the European themes and one for Asian themes.
Katepanō – The governor of a greater area combining two or more themes, such as theCatepan of Italy, a title developed in the 9th century.
Stratēgos – A military and later also civil commander of a theme, who often also had the title ofdoux. The term is basically equivalent to "general" or "admiral", as it was used in both branches of service.
Tourmarchēs – The commander of atourma, a military unit of battalion size.
Prōtostratōr – Initially the Emperor'sstable master, under the Komnenian and Palaiologan emperors the term was used for the second-ranking commander of the army.
Stratopedarchēs, Master of the Camp – In charge of making sure the army was stocked with food and arms.
Hoplitarchēs orarchēgētēs – Commander of all infantry in an army. The title first appeared in the mid-10th century, when the infantry was reorganized and gained in importance.
Prōtokentarchos andkentarchos – Commanders of a smaller division of the army in the field. The name was derived from the Latincenturion.
Merarchēs – Commander of a division(meros) of the army. Usually, each army was divided into two to three such commands.
Taxiarchēs orchiliarchēs – Commander of an infantry regiment (taxiarchia orchiliarchia) in the army.
Kavallarios – A title borrowed from the Latincaballarius, it originally meant a cavalry soldier. During thePalaiologan period, it became a minor court title.[36]
Megas doux, Megaduke or Grand Duke — The basic equivalent of the modernLord High Admiral. The office was created byAlexios I Komnenos, when he combined the remnants of the imperial and thematic fleets into a single imperial fleet. By the end of thePalaiologos dynasty the megaduke was head of the government and bureaucracy, not just the navy.
Amirales — Greek version of "Admiral", introduced via Sicilian practice; an office founded in the late Palaiologan era for Western mercenary leaders and rarely held, theamirales was the deputy of themegas doux.
Megas droungarios — Initially the commander-in-chief of the Byzantine navy; after the creation of themegas doux his lieutenant, in charge of the naval officers.
Droungarios – The title existed both in the army and the navy. In the navy of the 8th–11th centuries, adroungarios headed a fleet, either the central imperial fleet or one of the thematic fleets; in the army he headed a Droungos, a roughly battalion-sized grouping.
Komēs ordroungarokomēs – The commander of a squadron ofdromons.
Hetaireiarchēs — The chief of thebarbarian mercenaries, theHetaireia, successor to theFoederati. Initially subdivided into Greater (Megalē), Middle (Mesē) and Little (Mikra)Hetaireia.
Akolouthos, "Acolyte" — The chief of theVarangian Guard from the Komnenian era onwards.
Manglavitai — A category of palace guards, armed with sword and cudgel (manglavion). Under the command of aPrōtomanglavitēs.
Topotērētēs, "place-holder" or "lieutenant" — Found at various levels of the hierarchy, as deputies to commanders of the imperialtagmata, deputy to adrungarios.
Byzantine administrative nature was characterized by its versatility and unfixed duties in constant role change depending on a specific situation. The vast Byzantine bureaucracy had a number of titles, more varied than aristocratic and military titles. In Constantinople there were normally hundreds, if not thousands, of bureaucrats at any time. Like members of the Church and the military, they wore elaborately differentiateddress, often including huge hats. These are some of the more common ones, including non-nobles who also directly served the emperor.
Praetorian prefect — ThePraetorian prefecture was set up byAugustus as the command of the imperial Guard in Rome. It was developed byDiocletian into a civil office, whereby a handful of Prefects each acted for the Emperor with responsibility for a cluster of dioceses and provinces. Each received regular reports on administration from the provincial governors, had treasuries of his own, and paid and supplied the army with food. He was also a supreme judge of appeal; in cases which were brought before his court from a lower tribunal there was no further appeal to the Emperor. He could issue, on his own authority, praetorian edicts, but they concerned only matters of detail. The office was abolished in the 7th century as part of wide-ranging civil and military reforms, and evolved into that of thedomestikos.
Basileopatōr (βασιλεοπάτωρ), "Father of the Emperor" — An exceptional title, granted only twice in Byzantine history. Although abasileopatōr was not the emperor's actual father, and the title did not necessarily denote any familial relationship at all, both awardees were the father-in-law of the emperor:Stylianos Zaoutzes underLeo VI the Wise andRomanos I Lekapenos briefly as regent forConstantine VII, before he raised himself to co-emperor. It ranked first among the "decreed" offices, and entailed wide-ranging administrative duties.
Protasekretis, "First Secretary" — an earlier title for the head of thechancery, responsible for keeping official government records and head of the class of senior secretaries known asasekretis. Other subordinates included thechartoularios, in charge of imperial documents; thekastrensios, a chamberlain in the palace; themystikos, a private secretary; and theeidikos, a treasury official.
Protonotarios — Mainly used during the middle Byzantium (8th to 10th c.), also "First Secretary" but chiefly employed as chief financial and executive officer of either each thema/province, directly under its governor-general, or as imperial secretary in various government ministries in the capital. Charged with the provisioning of the thematic troops ahead of a campaign, the Protonotarios at times resembled a Commissar of the USSR, answering only to the emperor. During the late Byzantine era, the title was only encountered at the Palaiologan court, as the emperor's private secretary. In post-imperial times the title was linked to a higher administrative position with the Orthodox Church authorities.
Chartoularios tou vestiariou, literally "keeper of documents for the Public Wardrobe" (seeVestiarion) — Responsible for minting gold and silver coins and equipping the fleet.
Logothetēs, "one who accounts, calculates or ratiocinates" (literally "one who sets the word") — A secretary in the extensive bureaucracy, who did various jobs depending on the exact position. In the middle and lateByzantine Empire, it rose to become a senioradministrative title, equivalent to a modernminister orsecretary of state. Different offices of Logothetes included:
Megas logothetēs, Grand Logothete — the head of the logothetes, personally responsible for the legal system and treasury, somewhat like achancellor in western Europe.
Logothetes originally had some influence on the emperor, but the posts eventually became honorary. In the later empire the Grand Logothete was replaced by themesazōn ("mediator").
Quaestor — Originally an accountant or auditor, the office eventually became a judicial one for Constantinople.
Tribounos, translation of Latintribune — Responsible for maintenance of roads, monuments, and buildings in Constantinople (which were the responsibility of the Aedile, not the Tribunes in earlier Latin speaking times.)
Magister (magister officiorum,magister militum, "maistor" in Greek) — An old Roman term, master of offices and master of the army; by the time ofLeo III, these had become honorary titles and were eventually discarded.[37]
Sakellarios, "treasurer; purse-bearer" — Under Heraclius, an honorary supervisor of the other palace administrators, logothetes, etc. Later, the chief financial comptroller of the Empire.
Praetor, Latin for "Man who goes before; first man." — One of the oldest of Roman titles, predating the Roman Republic, the title's use morphed considerably through the years. By the time ofTheodosius I (379-395) it meant the leading municipal magistrate (like a modern Mayor) but from late 10th century until 1204, a civil governor of a theme.
Kephale, "head" — The governor of a small province, usually a town and its surrounding territory, in thePalaiologan period
Horeiarios — In charge of distributing food from the state granaries.
At the peaceful height of Middle Byzantium, court life "passed in a sort of ballet",[38] with precise ceremonies prescribed for every occasion, to show that "Imperial power could be exercised in harmony and order", and "the Empire could thus reflect the motion of the Universe as it was made by the Creator", according to the EmperorConstantine Porphyrogenitus, who wrote aBook of Ceremonies describing in enormous detail the annual round of the Court. Special forms of dress for multiple classes of people on particular occasions are set down; at the name-day dinner for the Emperor or Empress various groups of high officials performed ceremonial "dances", one group wearing "a blue and white garment, with short sleeves, and gold bands, and rings on their ankles. In their hands they hold what are calledphengia". The second group do just the same, but wearing "a garment of green and red, split, with gold bands". These colours were the marks of the old chariot-racing factions, the four now merged to just the Blues and the Greens, and incorporated into the official hierarchy. As in the Versailles ofLouis XIV, elaborate dress and court ritual probably were at least partly an attempt to smother and distract from political tensions.[citation needed]
Eunuchs also participated in court life, typically serving as attendants to noble women or assisting the emperor when he took part in religious ceremonies or removed his crown. Eunuchs in the early Byzantine Empire were usually foreigners, and they were often seen as having a low status. This changed in the 10th century, when the social status of eunuchs increased and members of the educated Byzantine upper class began to become eunuchs.[39]
However, even by the time ofAnna Comnena, with the Emperor away on military campaigns for much of the time, this way of life had changed considerably, and after theCrusader occupation it virtually vanished. A French visitor[who?] was shocked to see the Empress going to church far less well attended than the Queen of France would have been.[citation needed] The Imperial family abandoned the Great Palace for the relatively compactPalace of Blachernae.[when?][citation needed]
^Barnes, T. D. (1989-11-24), "Panegyric, history and hagiography in Eusebius' Life of Constantine",The Making of Orthodoxy, Cambridge University Press, pp. 94–123,doi:10.1017/cbo9780511555350.007,ISBN9780521351881
^Lewis, V. Bradley (2017-04-04). "Eusebius of Caesarea's Un-Platonic Platonic Political Theology".Polis: The Journal for Ancient Greek Political Thought.34 (1):94–114.doi:10.1163/20512996-12340119.ISSN0142-257X.For Eusebius theLaws mainly shows the agreement of Christian and pagan morality, while his political theory centers on the establishment and maintenance of a Christian empire under a Christian emperor who is a philosopher-king. His view represents one of the fundamental political options in ancient Christianity, one that influenced later Byzantine political theology, but was largely rejected in the west.
^Charanis, Peter (July 1969). "Early Christian and Byzantine Political Philosophy: Origins and Background. Francis Dvornik".Speculum.44 (3):459–460.doi:10.2307/2855514.ISSN0038-7134.JSTOR2855514.
^Barnes, T. D. (1989-11-24), "Panegyric, history and hagiography in Eusebius'Life of Constantine",The Making of Orthodoxy, Cambridge University Press, pp. 94–123,doi:10.1017/cbo9780511555350.007,ISBN9780521351881
^Harvey, Alan (1993).The land and taxation in the reign of Alexios I Komnenos: the evidence of Theophylakt of Ochrid. PERSEE.OCLC754219713.
^Ziche, Hartmut (2017-01-01), "Historians and the Economy: Zosimos and Prokopios on Fifth- and Sixth- Century Economie Development",Byzantine Narrative, BRILL, pp. 462–474,doi:10.1163/9789004344877_036,ISBN9789004344877
^Frankopan, P. (2007-02-01). "Kinship and the Distribution of Power in Komnenian Byzantium".The English Historical Review.CXXII (495):1–34.doi:10.1093/ehr/cel378.ISSN0013-8266.
^Robin Cormack, "Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons", 1985, George Philip, London, p180, using Kazhdan A.P., 1974 (in Russian)ISBN0-540-01085-5
^Spatharakis, Iohannis (1976).The portrait in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts. Brill Archive. p. 110.ISBN978-90-04-04783-9.
^The Eunuch in Byzantine History and Society; Shaun Tougher; page 22
Bury, J.B. (2016).History of the later Roman Empire: from the death of Theodosius I to the death of Justinian. Dover.ISBN978-0-486-20398-0.OCLC59201731.
Bury, J.B. (2018).HISTORY OF THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE: from the death of Theodosius I to the death of Justinian. Charles River Editors.ISBN978-1-61430-462-3.OCLC1193333944.
Guilland, Rodolphe (1967).Recherches sur les institutions byzantines (2 vols.) [Studies on the Byzantine Institutions]. Berliner byzantinische Arbeiten 35 (in French). Berlin and Amsterdam: Akademie-Verlag & Adolf M. Hakkert.OCLC878894516.
Mango, Cyril A. (2007).Η Αυτοκρατορία της Νέας Ρώμης [Byzantium: The Empire of the New Rome] (in Greek). Translated by Dimitris Tsoungarakis. Athens: Educational Institution of the National Bank of Greece.
Oikonomides, Nicolas (1972).Les listes de préséance byzantines des IXe et Xe siècles (in French). Paris: ÉditionsCNRS.
